To govern properly, one might contend, does not require moral knowledge. Therefore my criticisms of claims to such knowledge are irrelevant. For what governing requires is only instrumental knowledge, that is, a correct understanding of the most efficient means for achieving widely or even universally accepted ends like human happiness or wellbeing. Instrumental knowledge, the argument might continue, is primarily, perhaps exclusively, empirical knowledge about mankind, society, nature, human and social behavior, tendencies, laws, processes, structures, and the like. In principle, then, the instrumental knowledge necessary to govern well could be a science like other empirical sciences.
Some such view is meant to support claims that guardians should be drawn from the ranks of scientists, engineers, technicians, experts in public administration, experienced civil servants, or others who are presumed to possess specialized empirical knowledge. In the psychologist B. F. Skinner's utopia, Walden Two, the guardians would be, naturally, behavioral scientists (specifically Skinnerians, it seems). With Leninists, the guardians during the transition to true democracy are to be those who uniquely understand the laws of history and economics, and who, it turns out, are exclusively MarxistLeninists. Natural scientists are predisposed to assume that policymakers would be far better qualified if only they followed the methods of natural science. (For a recent example, see the editorial by Daniel E.
Koshland, Jr. in Science, 25 October 1985, 391.) Engineers would prefer . . .
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Page 68 engineers. And so on. The underlying assumption is that the task of deciding on the best public policies depends essentially on empirical knowledge; if so, then the necessary knowledge is, or could be, an empirical science, theoretical or practical.
As an example, take decisions about American nuclear weapons strategies. These, it might be argued, are in essence purely instrumental, because virtually everyone in the United States agrees on the primacy of certain ends: survival of the human species, survival of a civilized world, survival of the United States as we know it, and so on. The difficult questions, then, are not about ends; they concern means. But the choice of means (the argument runs) is strictly instrumental, not moral; the question is how best to achieve the ends that everyone agrees on. The knowledge required for these decisions is therefore technical, scientific, instrumental, empirical. Because this knowledge is extraordinary complex, and much of it unavoidably secret, it is inherently far beyond the reach of ordinary citizens. Consequently, decisions about nuclear strategy should not be made by public opinion or through democratic processes; they should be made by experts who have special knowledge of nuclear weapons strategies. Sadly for democracy, these experts are necessarily a small minority of American citizens.
Plausible as the argument might appear, it is fundamentally mistaken. To begin with, to suppose that decisions about nuclear weapons are purely instrumental and devoid of crucial and highly controversial moral questions is a profound misunderstanding. Consider some of the issues: Is nuclear war morally justifiable? If not, is a strategy of deterrence permissible? If so, in what circumstances, if any, should nuclear weapons be used? What targets are morally permissible? For example, should cities and other population centers be targeted? If not, how would it be possible to destroy an opponent's command and control centers, much less industry, transportation, and other economic centers, or even military forces? Finally, in what circumstances short of "victory" would it be best to end a nuclear war—in the extreme case, to accept defeat as preferable to annihilation?
Clearly, decisions about matters like these are not merely instrumental. They also involve moral choices, some of which are extraordinarily difficult and perplexing.
Although for decades strategic decisions were made with little attention to their moral presuppositions either by key decisionmakers (Bracken 1983, 239) or the general public, a pastoral letter of American Catholic bishops in 1983 brought many of the moral issues to public attention ("The Challenge of Peace," 1983).
Subsequently, others undertook to explore the moral dimension of strategic decisions from other, sometimes conflicting, perspectives (e.g., Russett 1984; MacLean 1986). Whatever one's judgment on the moral issues may be, the fact that strategic decisions do depend on moral judgments completely undermines the assumption that they are purely instrumental and could be made wisely on purely empirical, scientific, or technical considerations.
Nor are strategic decisions unique. Decisions about crucial public policies rarely, if ever, require knowledge only of the technically most efficient means to ends that can be taken as given because they are selfevidently right or universally accepted. Because "scientific" knowledge about the empirical world cannot be a
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sufficient qualification for ruling, pure empirical "science" is not and cannot be enough to constitute a "royal science" of ruling.
Experts As Policymakers
It is surely true, however, that, although moral judgments are always necessary to intelligent decisions, as they obviously are in decisions about nuclear forces, they are never sufficient. One must also make judgments about the empirical world—how it operates, what feasible alternatives it allows, the probable consequences of each, and so on. At least some of these judgments require specialized knowledge of a sort we cannot reasonably expect most people to possess: instrumental knowledge. If nuclear weapons policy is perhaps unrepresentative in the extreme difficulty of its moral choices, it is less atypical in its requirements for technical knowledge. Though decisions about nuclear weapons do pose technical questions, these may be no more demanding than technical questions related to many other complex issues.
Because both moral understanding and instrumental knowledge are always necessary for policy judgments, neither alone can ever be sufficient. It is precisely here that any argument for rule by a purely technocratic elite must fail. As in the case of nuclear forces, technocrats are no more qualified than others to make the essential moral judgments. They may be less so. For technocrats suffer from at least three other defects that are probably irremediable in a world where knowledge is as complex as it is in ours. In the first place, the specialization required in order to acquire a high degree of expert knowledge is today inherently limiting: one becomes a specialist in something, that is, in one thing, and by necessity remains ignorant of other things.
Second, Plato's royal science simply does not exist, and therefore its practitioners cannot exist. Thus, pace Plato, there is no single art or science that can satisfactorily demonstrate a claim to unite in itself the moral and instrumental understanding required for intelligent policymaking in today's world. Perhaps a few philosophers, social scientists, or even natural scientists might make such an extravagant claim for their own specialty. But a simple test would, I believe, quickly expose the weakness of any such claims: let those who assert such claims be subjected to examination by experts in each area, and let us be the judges of their performance.
The third weakness of technocrats as policymakers is that, on a great many questions of policy, instrumental judgments depend on assumptions that are not strictly technical, scientific, or even very rigorous. Often these assumptions reflect a kind of ontological judgment: the world is like this, not that, it tends to work this way, not that way. With nuclear weapons, for example, ordinary people, as Bracken points out (1983, 50), are likely to believe in Murphy's famous law: If things can go wrong, they probably will. Although supported by a great deal of experience (in fact probably as well supported by experience as most generalizations in the social sciences), Murphy's law is of course not a wellvalidated
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