The theory of the democratic process that I have just described might seem adequate as it stands. Yet it is radically incomplete. Several of the most crucial
assumptions of the theory are much too debatable to be acceptable without further examination. The implications of the theory are also far from clear, and in any case important implications are themselves likely to be contested.
In the rest of this book therefore I take up the most important problems in the theory of the democratic process. Although there is no definitive solution for most of these problems, I shall try to arrive as close to a reasonable solution as may be possible at present.
1. The argument for the Strong Principle of Equality would appear to support the conclusion that everyone subject to the laws should be included in the demos.
Everyone? Not quite: not children, for example: the Presumption of Personal Autonomy applies to adults. As we saw earlier, Athenian democrats did not find it anomalous that their demos included only a minority of adults. Well into the last century most advocates of democracy assumed that women were rightly excluded from the suffrage, that is, from the demos. In most countries women gained the suffrage only in this century, and in a few only after the Second World War. In
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Page 116 fact, not until our own century did democratic theory and practice begin to reflect a belief that all (or virtually all) adults should be included in the demos as a matter of right. Is a judgment as to who should be included in the demos, then, purely arbitrary or so strongly conditioned by history and culture that no general judgment is possible? Although democratic theory and practice both provide substantial support for such a conclusion, I believe it is mistaken. I take up this problem in the next chapter.
2. The criteria for a democratic process, as I have described them here, do not specify a decision rule. Historically, of course, it has usually been contended that the only decision rule appropriate to the democratic process is majority rule. Yet even the term "majority" rule does not refer to a single, welldefined decision rule: It refers to a family of possible rules. These range from the rule that the alternative to be accepted as binding is the one that gains the greatest number of votes, even if this number is less than 50 percent, to others that require at least 50 percent plus one or a matching of every alternative against every other alternative. But all such numerical rules are subject to potential defects, such as cycles in which no majority preference can definitely be established. And even if these problems can be solved, the question remains: Why should we accept any majority principle? These issues will be considered in chapter 10.
3. Advocates of guardianship contend that any process by which ordinary citizens rule is unlikely to achieve the public good, since ordinary citizens lack both the necessary knowledge and the necessary virtue. However, even advocates of democracy sometimes argue that no process is sufficient to ensure that the public good (the public interest, the good of all, etc.) will be achieved. What is sometimes referred to as the idea of substantive democracy gives priority to the justice or rightness of the substantive outcomes of decisions rather than to the process by which the decisions are reached. In one phrasing, substantive justice should take priority over procedural justice and substantive rights priority over procedural rights. Sorting out the issues involved in this dispute over priorities is, as we shall see in chapters 11 and 12, quite tricky. But on the face of it the argument for the importance of substance as against process clearly has merit.
4. If the democratic process is a means by which some collection of persons may rightfully govern itself, what constitutes an appropriate collection of persons for employing the democratic process? Is any collection of persons entitled to the democratic process? In short, if democracy means government by the people, what constitutes "a people"? There may be no problem in the whole domain of democratic theory and practice more intractable than the one posed by this innocentseeming question. To grasp it, imagine an aggregate of persons. Adapting Jonathan Swift to our purposes, let us call them the Eggfolk. While many Eggfolk contend that the Eggfolk constitute a single "people," some insist that they are really divided into two distinct peoples, the Big Eggfolk and the Little Eggfolk, with such different ways and beliefs that they should govern themselves separately, each entitled to its own fully democratic system. How are we to decide? As
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we shall discover in chapter 13, democratic theory supplies little by way of an answer. In fact, while historical answers exist, there may be no satisfactory theoretical solution to this problem.
5. As the problem of a decision rule illustrates, the democratic process must somehow be actualized in the real world—in actually existing procedures, institutions, associations, states, and so on. As we saw, in the long history of democracy in the Western world democratic ideas have been applied to two radically different types of political system, the citystate and the nationstate. These were radically different in scale, and they developed radically different political institutions. Is it possible, then, to specify a unique set of institutions necessary to the democratic process? Or do the institutional requirements vary according to the scale of a society as well as other factors? We return to these questions in chapters 14 and 15.
6. Inevitably, whenever democratic ideas are applied to the real world, actual democracy falls significantly short of ideal standards. For example, the criteria for the democratic process set out earlier have never been fully met and probably cannot be. What level of approximation are we to regard as in some sense satisfactory—
sufficiently satisfactory, let us say, so that we may reasonably call some actual system a "democracy." This problem of the proper threshold of democracy is more than a mere matter of terminology. For example, if we feel an obligation to uphold democratic governments but not authoritarian governments, then the threshold becomes essential to a judgment about our obligations.
I shall argue in chapter 16 that an important threshold of democracy has been attained by a significant number of modern countries, as evidenced by a specific set of political institutions which, taken together, distinguishes the political system of these countries from all "democracies" and republics prior to the eighteenth century and from all "nondemocracies" in the contemporary world. Although these countries are ordinarily said to be "democracies," I will refer to their systems—distinguishable as I have said by virtue of their political institutions—as polyarchies. What conditions favor the emergence and persistence of polyarchy in a country—and conversely, the absence of what conditions reduces the likelihood that a country will arrive at this modern threshold of democracy? I explore these questions in chapter 17.
7. Since the threshold attained by polyarchy is well short of democratic ideals, would it be possible, and if possible would it be desirable, to close some of the gap between polyarchy and democracy—to establish and surpass yet another threshold on the way to democracy? A strong current of utopianism in democratic thought encourages one to answer yes. But a countercurrent in modern thought, which will be discussed in chapter 18, contends that other powerful tendencies, such as a universal tendency to oligarchy, set insuperable limits to the possibilities of further democratization.
8. The transformation in the scale of democracy that came about as a result of the attempt to apply the democratic process to the nationstate seems to have turned political life in democratic countries into a competitive struggle among individuals
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Page 118 and groups with conflicting ideas, ideals, and goals. What then is the fate of that ancient ideal of political virtue and the pursuit of a common good? This question is the subject of chapters 19 and 20.
9. Finally, then, what can we reasonably conclude as to the limits and possibilities of democratization, particularly in a world that does not stand still, where the limits and possibilities may be changing as profoundly as they did when the nationstate superseded the citystate as the locus of democracy? And what about the
nondemocratic governments that now prevail and may continue to prevail in a majority of countries of the world? How ought we appraise political systems in countries that are not democratic—that have not even reached the threshold of polyarchy? In the final chapters I want to explore some of the limits and possibilities of democracy.
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