Since theoretical reasoning evidently cannot be made to yield a firm conclusion that majority rule is necessarily superior or inferior to some alternatives to it, it would be surprising if associations whose members are committed to the democratic idea had arrived at a single solution to the problem of decision rules. Casual observation of
"democratic" organizations appears to confirm this judgment, since they seem to follow a tremendous variety of different practices.
One relevant body of evidence bearing on this conclusion is Arend Lijphart's analysis of patterns of majoritarian and consensus government in twentyone countries, which comprise all that have been "continuously democratic since about World War II" (Lijphart 1984). 7 Lijphart's democracies are essentially what I define as
"polyarchies" in chapter 15. Anticipating chapter 15, I am going to call these countries "stable polyarchies." 8
Lijphart contrasts two models of democracy—the "Westminster model," derived from an idealized version of Great Britain's parliamentary system, 9 and the
"consensus" model, represented, for example, by Switzerland and Belgium. By "consensus" Lijphart does not necessarily mean unanimity. Consequently the systems of decisionmaking in the countries that fit his consensus model are for the most part not open to the objections to unanimity that were discussed in the last chapter, though like all supermajority rules their arrangements do privilege the status quo with respect to at least some issues. Thus while "the essence of the Westminster model is majority rule'' (4), the guiding principle of the consensus model is to achieve the explicit consent of the major social groups in the country. 10
The details are illuminating. For example, if majoritarianism were the norm in
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stable polyarchies, on theoretical grounds one would expect that in countries with cabinet systems (that is, all but the United States) cabinets would typically include only members of the majority party or party coalition. To include members of minority parties whose votes were not strictly necessary to passing laws would be an overture to consensualism. Yet in only eight countries are cabinets limited to the minimal winning size more than 85 percent of the time (table 11.1). Likewise, in a strictly majoritarian system a second chamber makes little sense; indeed, precisely because each chamber virtually duplicated the other, the Scandinavian countries abolished the redundant second house. But bicameralism remains far and away more common in democratic countries (table 11.1).
Advocates of the Westminster model as the very epitome of modern democratic institutions have long lauded twoparty systems as essential to majority rule. The party that gains a majority of votes and seats is entitled to govern, while the minority party constitutes the loyal opposition. Yet twoparty systems are a rarity; today only New Zealand and the United States can be so characterized (and the fragmented parties of the United States are a far cry from the centralized parties of the original Westminster model). Even the original home of the twoparty system, Britain, is no longer so (table 11.1).
Supporters of a majoritarian system also tend to assume that party conflict will tend to occur over a single type of issue (typically socioeconomic questions) that allows voters to array themselves pretty consistently at about the same place on the political spectrum from left to right. Thus the outcome of an election will reflect a consistent majority and minority in the electorate, and it will produce a majority government and a minority opposition in parliament. Moreover, since the policy alternatives are typically framed to require one to vote either for or against a proposal, the defects of majority rule in the face of more than two alternatives are avoided. By contrast, when political activists disagree along two or more issue dimensions, such as socioeconomic matters and religious issues, a majority on one issue is likely to differ in composition from a majority on another issue. Forming a parliamentary majority capable of maintaining itself over a series of different questions therefore requires leaders to extend themselves to build coalitions and consensus; at the limit, the outcome may be a grand coalition of all the major parties. In such a political environment, then, the majoritarian Westminster model is likely to give way to a consensus system. By Lijphart's measure, in only five countries with polyarchal governments is partisan conflict predominantly along a singleissue dimension (table 11.1).
Although the Westminster model prescribes a plurality or majority electoral system—parliamentary seats go to candidates who win the most votes in singlemember districts—this feature seems to me an historical peculiarity of the Englishspeaking countries rather than a strict requirement for majoritarianism. 11 It is often argued, however, that the Westminster electoral arrangements favor two parties, while PR tends to generate multiparty systems. Two parties will ensure that voters, confronted by only two alternatives, will coalesce into a majority, represented by the majority party, and a minority, represented by the loyal opposition. By reward
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Page 158
Table 11.1. Majoritarian and Nonmajoritarian Systems in TwentyTwo Stable Polyarchies
Number of Countries
Majoritarian Mixed Consensus
Size of Cabinets
aMinimal winning
size
More than 85
percent of the time
8
85 percent of the
time or less 6
Oversized cabinets 7
Unicameral and Bicameral Parliaments
bUnicameral 6
Hybrid 2
Bicameral 14
Party Systems
cTwo parties 2
More than two,
fewer than three
d6
Three or more 14
Number of Issue Dimensions Involved in Partisan Conflicts
ePredominantly one issue dimension
f5
Two or more issue
dimensions 17
Electoral Systems
gPlurality and majority systems
6
Semiproportional
h1
Proportional
representation 15
Unitary and Federal Systems
iUnitary 16
Federal 6
Judicial Review and Minority Veto
jNeither 4
Judicial review, no
minority veto 6
Minority veto, no
judicial review 5
Minority veto and
judicial review 7
a
Excludes United States. Source: Lijphart 1984, 152.
b
Source: Lijphart 1984, 92.
c
Source: Lijphart 1984, 121, 122.
d
Systems in which the third party is weaker than the other two.
e
Source: Lijphart 1984, 130.
f
Includes all countries scoring less than 2 on Lijphart's measure of issue dimensions: Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, United Kingdom, and the United States.
g
Source: Lijphart 1984, 152.
h
Japan.
i
Source: Lijphart 1984, 178.
j
Source: Lijphart 1984, 193.
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Table 11.2. National Referendums (1945–80) Number of Referendums Number of Countries
169 1 (Switzerland)
20–169 0
10–19 3
2–9 5
1 4
0 9
ing the winning party with more seats than its percentage of popular votes would warrant, the Westminster arrangement also enhances the majority party's prospects for a stable cabinet that is capable of carrying out the policies that a majority of voters had presumably supported, in broad outline at least. Although these arguments are of doubtful validity, 12 the fact is that outside the Englishspeaking countries proportional representation is the norm (table 11.1). PR and multiparty
Table 11.3.
Majoritarian
New Zealand
United Kingdom
Ireland
Luxembourg
Sweden
Norway
MajoritarianFederal
United States
Canada
Germany
Austria
Australia
Japan
ConsensualUnitary
Israel
Denmark
Finland
France (Fourth Republic)
Iceland
Consensual
Switzerland
Belgium
Netherlands
Italy
France (Fifth Republic)
Source: Lijphart 1984, 216.
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