77
in Indonesia
Sri Mulyati
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Abstraksi: Artikel ini menggambarkan perkembangan spiritualitas Islam di Indonesia dan, secara VLQJNDWSRVLVLWDVDXIGDODPDMDUDQ,VODPEHULNXWSDQGDQJDQSDQGDQJDQQ\DGDQSHUDQQ\DGDODP JHUDNDQJHUDNDQUHOLMLXVVRVLDONXOWXUDOSHQGLGLNDQGDQSROLWLNGDODPPDV\DUDNDW0XVOLP,DMXJD PHQJXODVWDQWDQJDQGDQPDVDGHSDQWDVDXIGL,QGRQHVLDGHQJDQPHOLKDWSHUNHPEDQJDQQ\DGDULVLVL kekuatan dan kelemahannya. Diasumsikan bahwa kelebihan dan kelemahannya jika diperbandingkan dengan mancanegara ternyata mengalami hal sama. Lebih jauh artikel ini menjelaskan salah satu dari gerakan tarekat yang memainkan peran penting di Indonesia, yakni T̔DUƯTDK 4ƗGLUL\\DKZD 1DTV\EDQGL\\DK 741 GLJawa Barat. Dengan memahami kondisi keagamaan mutakhir, dapat GLJDPEDUNDQSURVSHNWDVDXIGL,QGRQHVLDPDVDGHSDQ
Katakunci: 7DVDXI7̔DUƯTDK4ƗGLUL\\DKZD1DTV\EDQGL\\DK741,VODP,QGRQHVLD
Abstract: 7KLVZULWLQJGHVFULEHVWKHJURZWKRI,VODPLFVSLULWXDOLW\LQ,QGRQHVLDDQGLQVKRUWWKH SRVLWLRQ RI 0\VWLFLVP LQ ,VODPLF WHDFKLQJV ZLWK LWV REMHFWLYHV DQG LWV SDUW LQ WKH FXUUHQW ,VODPLF religious movements, as well its social, cultural, educational and political roles in Islamic society.
,WDOVRYLHZVWKHFKDOOHQJHDQGLWVIXWXUHLQ,QGRQHVLD7KHSURJUHVVDFKLHYHGE\VX¿XQWLOQRZLV considered, as well its weaknesses as its strengths, and comparing this with the situation outside WKHFRXQWU\DQGDVVXPLQJWKDWLQWKHFDVHRI,QGRQHVLDVXFKZHDNQHVVHVDQGVWUHQJWKVPLJKWEH UHODWLYHO\WKHVDPH)XUWKHUPRUHWKHSDSHUGLVSOD\VWKHH[DPSOHRIRQHSDUWLFXODUVX¿RUGHUWKDW still plays an important role in Indonesia, namely the T̔DUƯTD4ƗGLUL\\DZD1DTVKEDQGL\\DLQ:HVW Java. In addition, considering the current religious climate in the country, we may perhaps draw VRPHFRQFOXVLRQVDVWRSURVSHFWVIRUVX¿LQ,QGRQHVLD
Keywords: 0\VWLFLVP7̔DUƯTDK4ƗGLUL\\DKZD1DTV\EDQGL\\DK741Indonesian Islam
Introduction
Islam, from its arrival in Indonesia in the thirteenth century (or the seventh century DFFRUGLQJWRVRPHVRXUFHVZDVFKDUDFWHUL]HG E\P\VWLFLVPRUVX¿DVLWLVNQRZQLQ,VODP It certainly received a warm welcome from the people there, for it appears from what we know that the spread of Islam throughout the archipelago was made possible by the great DQG UHPDUNDEOH HIIRUWV RI VX¿ SUHDFKHUV ,Q DGGLWLRQZH¿QGHVSHFLDOO\LQ-DYDHYLGHQFH RIWKHH[LVWHQFHRIYDULRXVVX¿RUGHUVDVZHOO as reports of the activities of the nine saints (walisongoDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKH¿IWHHQWK century, all of them helping to disseminate Islam, even in Sumatra Marco Polo found in
WKDW,VODPKDGEHHQHVWDEOLVKHGWKHUH1 ,QDGGLWLRQ,EQ%DWѽtѽnjWѽa discovered that there had already long been an Islamic kingdom in Samudra $FHK ZKHQ KH DUULYHG LQ 2 In Indonesia the type of approach adopted E\VX¿VKDVDWWUDFWHGSHRSOHWR,VODPZKLFK has found the soil there fertile to its growth.
However, the progress of Islamic mysticism KDV IDFHG GLI¿FXOWLHV LQ UHFHQW GHFDGHV GXH to the distractions of worldly life, to say
1 Deny Lombard, “Les tarékat en Insulinde,” in /HV 2UGUHV 0\VWLTXHV GDQV O¶,VODP, in A. Popovic &
G. Veinstein (ed.) (Paris: Ecole des Hautes Etudes en 6FLHQFHV6RFLDOHV
2 Ross E. Dunn, 7KH$GYHQWXUH RI ,EQ %DẂt́njẂD
$ 0XVOLP 7UDYHOOHU RI WKH th &HQWXU\ (California:
&DOLIRUQLD8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
QRWKLQJ RI WKH LQÀXHQFH RI LGHDV RI UHIRUP DQG SHUKDSV DOVR VHFXODUL]DWLRQ 7KLV SDSHU will discuss the development of Islamic VSLULWXDOLW\ LQ ,QGRQHVLD E\ ¿UVW REVHUYLQJ LQ EULHI WKH SRVLWLRQ RI VX¿ LQ ,VODPLF teachings, its objectives and its part in the current Islamic religious movements, as well its social, cultural, educational and political roles in Islamic society. It also looks at the challenge and its future in Indonesia. Then, I will consider the progress achieved until now E\VX¿LWVZHDNQHVVHVDVZHOODVLWVVWUHQJWKV comparing this with the situation outside the country, and assuming that in the case of Indonesia, such weaknesses and strengths might be relatively the same. Furthermore, , ZLOO GLVFXVV WKH H[DPSOH RI RQH SDUWLFXODU VX¿ RUGHU WKDW VWLOO SOD\V DQ LPSRUWDQW UROH in Indonesia, namely the T̔DUƯTD 4ƗGLUL\\D ZD1DTVKEDQGL\\D in west Java. In addition, considering the current religious climate in the country, we may perhaps draw some FRQFOXVLRQV DV WR SURVSHFWV IRU VX¿ LQ Indonesia.
Discussion
(DUO\LQWKHKLVWRU\RI,VODPVX¿ZDVD UHDOLW\ZLWKRXWDQDPH7KHVX¿XQGHUVWDQGLQJ DQGLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKHP\VWLFDOH[SHULHQFH was more a type of individual LMWLKƗG (struggle) which applied also to IXTDKƗ¶
(jurists),PXIDVVLUnjQ4XU¶ƗQ commentators) and others. 6X¿ DV DQ DZDUHQHVV DQG D UHOLJLRXV H[SHULHQFH LV QRW DOZD\V HDV\ WR adapt to the principles of belief and the pattern of ordinary religious practices performed by ordinary people (µDZZƗP) However, to deny WKHH[LVWHQFHRIVX¿ZRXOGEHWRRH[WUHPH
Some western scholars have claimed WKDW WKH RULJLQV RI VX¿ DUH WR EH IRXQG LQ WKH 4XU¶ƗQ DQG WKH 6XQQD EXW WKH\ H[SUHVV themselves with numerous reservations, and suggest that in any event subsequent events WRRNVX¿IDUIURPLWVSULPLWLYHURRWV In the
Hamid Algar mentions the work of A.J. Arberry,
Islamic world itself, various misconceptions RIVX¿KDYHDOVRJDLQHGSRSXODULW\LQUHFHQW
\HDUV$VIRUWKH$UDEZRUOGWKHYLHZRIVX¿
DV µD KDUPIXO DQG UHSXJQDQW H[FUHVFHQFH¶
on the body of Islam, as it is regarded by the WahhƗEƯs and the 6DOD¿\\Dcontinue to H[HUFLVH LWV LQÀXHQFH 7KH H[LVWHQFH RI VX¿
orders throughout the Islamic world until the present time however, serves as a witness WR WKH SRSXODULW\ RI VX¿ ,WV KLVWRULFDO UROH GXULQJPRUHWKDQ¿YHFHQWXULHVRIWKH,VODPLF era, indicates an organic relationship with the social, spiritual and intellectual life of the whole Muslim community, assuring it a large measure of unity, continuity, and vitality.
6X¿VLQFHLWVJURZWKLQWKHFHQWUDO,VODPLF lands in the eighth century until its golden DJHLQWKHWKLUWHHQWKKDVEHHQFKDUDFWHUL]HG by individual interpretations such as those of HҐDVDQ DO%DVҚUƯ 5DEƯµD DO$GDZL\\D ZKLFK later grew into tariqas (Arab: T̔DUƯTD) which had their own versions of GKLNU ED\µD etc.
However, the tariqas are like lines which H[WHQG IURP WKH FLUFXPIHUHQFH RI D FLUFOH to the center. These lines are numerous;
KRZHYHU WKH\ DOO ZLOO HQG LQ WKH FHQWHU² imagine the wheel of the bicycle. The center itself is the 4XU¶ƗQDO.DUƯP and the Sunna DO6̞ah̡ƯK̡a. The tariqa and +̔DTƯTD unite to GHVLJQDWHWKHP+HQFHVX¿LVQRWDVHSDUDWH school (madhhab) in terms of Islamic law;
it is a path or a way which brings people to absolute truth, the tawh̡ƯG.
In the history of Islamic thought, there have been two tendencies in the observation RI UHOLJLRXV EHOLHI ¿UVW WKH WHQGHQF\ WR observe outward rules (VKDUƯµD); and second, the tendency to observe inner rules. There has been a long dispute concerning this matter, marked by mutual accusations of deviation
6X¿VP $Q $FFRXQW RI WKH 0\VWLFV RI ,VODP (London:
*HRUJH$OOHQ 8QZLQDVDQH[DPSOH
+DPLG $OJDU ³7KH 1DTVKEDQGƯ 2UGHU $ 3UHOLPLQDU\ 6XUYH\ RI LWV +LVWRU\ DQG 6LJQL¿FDQFH´
Studia Islamica,
+DPLG$OJDU³1DTVKEDQGƯ2UGHU´
from the faith and going astray; one thinker LQ SDUWLFXODU KRZHYHU DO*KD]ƗOƯ ZDV successful in integrating VKDUƯµD and tariqa.
The principle of balance (WDZƗ]XQ) that is PHQWLRQHGLQWKH4XU¶ƗQVKRXOGEH maintained; any deviation from this principle will result in sin, for this goes against the rules which govern nature. If human beings may be said to be microcosms then they must observe the principle of balance in everything, including their spiritual life (see VnjUD DO Ah̡]ƗE7KH3URSKHW0XKҝammad has SURYLGHGXVZLWKDQH[DPSOHIROORZHGE\KLV companions, and then later followed by the VX¿V
7KHXQLYHUVDOLW\RIWKH4XU¶ƗQLVUHÀHF WHGLQWKHIDFWWKDWLWFRQWDLQVRQO\YHUVHV which have absolute legal force; the rest of the verses need to be interpreted according to various details of situation and time.
Since human beings tend to interpret things differently, various interpretations therefore H[LVW DQG RQH PLJKW FKRRVH D FHUWDLQ LQWHU pretation that suits the occasion. Hence the interpretation of Islam can be applied and employed in any place and any time. The basic Islamic teachings are universal while their interpretation and implementation is local.
7KHDLPRIVX¿LVWREULQJRQHVHOIDVQHDU as possible to God, even to unite with Him (ittih̡ƗG) Since God is immaterial and holy, the only element of a human being that could approach Him is the soul, hence the human soul should be pure. Purifying the soul (heart) is accomplished through worship; to be near WR *RG D VX¿ VKRXOG IROORZ WKH ZD\VSDWKV (t́XUXTZKLFKLVDORQJDQGGLI¿FXOWSURFHVV consisting of stages (PDTƗPƗW) as well as certain conditions (ah̡ZƗO) As in philosophy, VX¿GLVFXVVHVWKHEDVLFSULQFLSOHVEXWXQOLNH WKHIRUPHUZKLFKXVHVUHDVRQDVDWRROVX¿
XWLOL]HV WKH VHQVH RI IHHOLQJ ZKLFK LV LQ WKH heart (TDOE) as a means to seek God.
Ibn Taymiyya believed that tas̞DZZXI VX¿ FRQVWLWXWHV D W\SH RILMWLKƗG towards
Allah. He found references to dhikr UHPHPEUDQFHRI*RGLQWKH4XU¶ƗQHJƖOX µ,PUƗQ DO5DµG DO+ҝDVKU 7KHdhikr E\ VX¿V LQ KLV GD\ FRQVLVWHG in reciting Allah (ODI]̡DO-DOƗOD), whereas the dhikr recommended by Ibn Taymiyya, meant reciting /ƗLOƗKDLOOƗ$OODK dhikr that consists in reciting ‘a single name,’ or LVPPXIUDGis not recommended.
The teachings of tariqas which integrated ZHOO ZLWK WKH VKDUƯµD ZHUH DGPLWWHG DV PXµWDEDUD (legitimate), while those which did not integrate well were regarded as JKD\U PXµWDEDUD. In the Indonesian case, ZH PD\ UHIHU WR D ODUJH RUJDQL]DWLRQ ZKLFK was founded by the Nahdlatul Ulama 18 WKH FHQWUDO ERDUG RI -DPµL\\D $KO T̔DUƯTD 0XµWDEDUD which has established its branches throughout Indonesia. At their QDWLRQDO FRQIHUHQFH LQ 6HPDUDQJ LQ IRUW\¿YHGLIIHUHQWVX¿RUGHUVZHUHDFFHSWHG as members and considered as providing a link to the Prophet Muhҝammad, peace be upon him.
Current Islamic Religious Movements In the nineteenth century Islamic religious PRYHPHQWV IHOO LQWR WKUHH JURXSV ¿UVW those advocating salvation through return WR WKH EDVLFV RI IDLWK WKH ODZ H[HPSOL¿HG E\ :DKKƗELVP 6HFRQG VDOYDWLRQ WKURXJK the divinely-sent leader (or guide) as seen
Djohan Effendi (ed.), 6X¿VPHGDQ0DVD'HSDQ Agama, 112. See also MusҚtѽDIƗ +ҐLOPƯIbn Taymiyya wa Tas̞DZZXI $OH[DQGULD 'ƗU DO'DµZD Perhaps what he means by LVPPXIUDG is reciting God’s names (DVPƗ¶DOK̡XVQƗ)
=DPDNKVKDUL'KR¿HU7UDGLVL3HVDQWUHQ6WXGL 7HQWDQJ 3DQGDQJDQ +LGXS .L\DL -DNDUWD /3(6
Idaroh ‘Aliyyah, 7KRULTRK 0XµWDEDURK Nahdliyyah6HPDUDQJ7RKD3XWUDWW,QWKH\
gathered at a national congress (PXµWDPDU) in Pondok Pesantren Futuhiyya, Mranggen, Demak, Central Java DQGHOHFWHGDFRPPLWWHHIRUWKHSHULRG6HH also Idaroh ‘Aliyyah, +DVLO 0XNWDPDU 9, -DPµL\\DW 7KRULTRK 0XµWDEDURK $Q1DKGOL\\DK (Semarang:
:LUDGMDWL
LQWKHFDVHRI0DKGƯVPDQGWKLUGVDOYDWLRQ through ecstasy and loss of self-volition, VXFK DV LQ WKH VX¿ VKD\NK FKDULVPDWLF leader), characteristic of the tariqa revival.
7KH DWWLWXGHV RI UHIRUPHUV WRZDUGV VX¿
varied from the hostility of Muhҝammad ibn µ$EGDO:DKKƗEZKRZDVDJDLQVWELGµD; the
‘6DOD¿¶ movement, i.e. Muhҝammad ‘Abduh DQG5DVKƯG5LGқƗ¶ZKRZHUHDJDLQVWVX¿EXW WROHUDWHGWKHHWKLFDOWHDFKLQJVRIDO*KD]ƗOƯ and Mustafa Kemal in Turkey who banned VX¿ RUGHUV RXWULJKW LQ In Indonesia these days we observe some prominent
¿JXUHV KDYH VKRZQ WKHLU LQWHUHVW LQ VX¿ RQ RQHKDQGEXWFHUWDLQ0XVOLPRUJDQL]DWLRQV LQVWLWXWLRQVWRVRPHH[WHQWDUHDJDLQVWLWVXFK DV+L]EXW7DKULU,QGRQHVLDSabili0DJD]LQH 6DODI\ Journal,10 Muhammadiyyah, Persatuan Islam etc.
The Roles of 6X¿LQIndonesian Society ,Q ,QGRQHVLD DW ¿UVW WKH IROORZHUV RI tariqas were residents of the palace; later, however, the common people joined in greater numbers. Tariqas were viewed as a source of spiritual power at the same time as legitimating and empowering the position of the king. It is understandable however that the kings should have been reluctant to let the people encouraging people to have access to the same supernatural power.11
J. Spencer Trimingham, The 6X¿ 2UGHUV LQ Islam1HZ<RUN2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV As a matter of fact the term 6DOD¿ according to Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, has been misused and ahistorical, because the term VDODI or VDODIDOV̞ƗOLK̡ that is XVHGZRUOGZLGHE\6XQQƯSHRSOHUHIHUUHGWRWKH+ҐDGƯWK of the Prophet Muhҝammad (pbuh) and dealing with the WUDGLWLRQRI0XVOLPVLQWKH¿UVWWKUHHFHQWXU\RI+LMUD See Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, Encyclopedia RI ,VODPLF 'RFWULQH vol. 1 (Mountain View: As-Sunna )RXQGDWLRQRI$PHULFD
10 Michael Laffan, “Crisis and Representation:
Salafy and 6X¿´ 3DSHU SUHVHQWHG DW ,QWHUQDWLRQDO
&RQIHUHQFHRQ6X¿VPDQGWKHµ0RGHUQ¶LQ,VODP%RJRU ,QGRQHVLD6HSWHPEHU
110DUWLQYDQ%UXLQHVVHQ³6KDUL¶D&RXUW7DUHNDW DQG 3HVDQWUHQ 5HOLJLRXV ,QVWLWXWLRQV LQ WKH %DQWHQ Sultanate,” Archipel 6HH DOVR 0DUWLQ
3ULRUWRWKHWKFHQWXU\PDQ\GLIIHUHQW tariqas attracted followers from all over Indonesia. People who came back from Mecca and Medina disseminated the 6KDWWƗUL\\D order, which was sometimes integrated with the 1DTVKEDQGL\\D or Khalwatiyya.
Indonesian Muslims were by no means homogeneous, yet while the community ZDV FXOWXUDOO\ GLYHUVH LW ZDV XQL¿HG DW WKH same time. The main cause of a person’s DWWDFKPHQW WR D VX¿ RUGHU ZDV XVXDOO\ WKH family link, and what kept him/her there were WKH VSLULWXDO VRFLDO DQG HFRQRPLF EHQH¿WV derived from that relationship. You were, so to speak, born a Muslim, a secularist, or a 6KƗGKLOƯ \RX ZHUH DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK \RXU ORFDO FRPPXQLW\ 7KH VRFLDO VLJQL¿FDQFH RI the orders was many sided but the religious VLJQL¿FDQFHZDVSULPDU\,WFDQQRWEHGHQLHG WKDWWRVRPHH[WHQWVX¿RUJDQL]DWLRQZDVIXOO\
EOHQGHG ZLWK WKH VDLQWFXOW H[SORLWLQJ LW LQ fact, represented the religion of the ordinary people. Participation in its ritual ministered to the individual‘s need to oppose or transcend society, raising him/her temporarily into WLPHOHVVVXSHUQDWXUDOH[SHULHQFH
The legalistic approach to religion has little to offer people’s deeper needs. The OHJDO DVSHFW RI UHOLJLRQV IXO¿OOV D VRFLDO IDU more than a spiritual function, and it was WKHIXQFWLRQRIWKHVX¿RUGHUVWRPHGLDWHWR the ordinary man the inner aspect of Islam.
7KH VX¿ FRPPXQLW\ LQ LWV DVVRFLDWLRQ ZLWK formal Islam, always held open the way for LOOXPLQLQJ WKH LQQHU DVSHFW RI WKH VKDUƯµD 0DQ\VX¿RUGHUVRIIHUHGDUHOLJLRXVVSKHUHWR ZRPHQZKRVHSUHVHQFHZDVOLWWOHUHFRJQL]HG in the legal religious set-up. Women could be enrolled as associates, and could be appointed DVOHDGHUVWRRUJDQL]HZRPHQ¶VFLUFOHV
7KHVRFLDOUROHRIWKHVX¿RUGHUVWKRXJK secondary to the religious one, was so important that no study on Islamic society,
YDQ %UXLQHVVHQKitab Kuning Pesantren dan Tarekat
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and particularly that of Indonesia, ought to ignore them. In traditional life, religion was WKH V\QWKHVLV RI KXPDQ DFWLYLW\ 7KH VX¿
orders, binding together individuals with a supernatural bond, were themselves a social power. Orders came to be associated in various ways with different strata of society.
7KH\ ZHUH RUJDQL]DWLRQV IRU PXWXDO KHOS and a venerated shaykh could voice the people’s grievances and condemn tyranny and oppression. They assisted the poor, and ministered to the sick and travelers.
Cultural and Educational Role
7KHLPSRUWDQFHRIVX¿LQWKHFXOWXUHRIWKH Muslim lands is evident. The loss to Islamic thought and poetry, supposing the absence of VX¿FDQKDUGO\EHFRQWHPSODWHG,WLQVSLUHGD vast and rich tradition of poetry and music, not merely in educated and sophisticated circles in Persia or in Anatolia but in simpler spheres DQG LQ VRSKLVWLFDWHG H[SUHVVLRQ LQ $UDELF 3HUVLDQ 7XUNLVK DQG 8UGX 7KH VX¿ RUGHUV acted as a bridge between the intellectualism of the high mystical reaches and the poetry of popular devotion.
/:&YDQGHQ%HUJ¶VUHVHDUFKLQ showed that a great number of nineteenth FHQWXU\ VX¿ ZRUNV ZHUH WKHQ VWXGLHG LQ WKH pesantrens 7UDGLWLRQDO ,VODPLF %RDUGLQJ Schools), such as Ih̡\Ɨ¶ µ8OnjP DO'ƯQ of al-
*KD]ƗOƯLQDGGLWLRQWRKLV%LGƗ\DDO+LGƗ\D and 0LQKƗM DOµƖELGƯn, DO+̡ikam of Ibn µAtѽƗ¶$OODK DO,VNDQGDUƯ6KXµDE DOƮPƗQ of MuhҝDPPDGLEQµ$EG$OODKDOƮMƯDQG+LGƗ\D DO$GKNL\Ɨ¶ LOƗ 7̔ƗULT DO$ZOL\Ɨ¶RI =D\Q DO
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At the same time it is a well known fact that the aliran kebatinan (Javanese mysticism) and other religious beliefs which KDYHH[LVWHGLQ,QGRQHVLDVWLOOÀRXULVKDPRQJ WKHLU IROORZHUV UHÀHFWLQJ WKH GHHS VSLULWXDO beliefs of the people. And given the fact
12 Karel A. Steenbrink, Beberapa Aspek tentang ,VODPGL,QGRQHVLD$EDGNH-DNDUWD%XODQ%LQWDQJ DQG
WKDW PRVW RI WKLV SRSXODWLRQ LV 0XVOLP VX¿
might be the religious tendency which will H[SHULHQFHJUHDWHVWH[SDQVLRQLQWKHIXWXUH
Political Role
7KH SROLWLFDO UROH RI WKH VX¿ RUGHUV KDV EHHQKLVWRULFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQWDQGWKHLULPSDFW SURIRXQG $IWHU WKH IDOO RI %DJKGDG WR WKH 0RQJROVLQWKH\VHUYHGWRSUHYHQWWKH breakup of the Muslim world into Arabic, Turkish and Persian speaking regions. They KDG D VWDELOL]LQJ UROH LQ FULWLFDO SHULRGV of change and political uncertainty. They EHFDPHDVLJQL¿FDQWHOHPHQWLQHVWDEOLVKLQJ QDWLRQV:H¿QGOHDGHUVRIRUGHUVDVSLULQJWR political power, revolting against established authority, and sometimes actually succeeding in founding a dynasty. The most remarkable H[DPSOHRIVXFKDPRYHPHQWZDVWKDWZKLFK led to the foundation of the Safavid dynasty in Persia. It was especially in the nineteenth century that the orders were in the forefront RI0XVOLPUHDFWLRQDJDLQVWWKHH[SDQVLRQRI colonialist powers. This may be seen in the case of Indonesia, where the T̔DUƯTD6DPPƗQL\\D actively opposed the Dutch in Palembang LQ DQG LQ 6RXWK .DOLPDQWDQ LQ The T̔DUƯTD 4ƗGLUL\\D ZD 1DTVKEDQGL\\D WRRNSDUWLQWKHSHDVDQW¶VUHYROWRI%DQWHQLQ DQGLQLQ/RPERNDJDLQVW+LQGX RSSUHVVLRQ LQ %DOL ,Q :HVW 6XPDWUD ZKHUH there is also a strong 1DTVKEDQGƯ presence, VWURQJUHVLVWDQFHZDVVKRZQLQWR'XWFK presence by the 6KDWWƗUL\\D order. In addition, the Sannjsiyya in the late nineteenth century inspired the Acehnese war against the Dutch ZKLOHLWVVKD\NKLQ/LE\DZDV¿JKWLQJDJDLQVW ,WDOLDQLQFXUVLRQVWKHUHIURPWR,Q Indonesia, we may observe the establishment of a political party named Partai Politik 7KDULTDW ,VODP 337, LQ E\ 6KD\NK -DOƗODO'ƯQDNKDOLIDRI6KD\NKµ$OƯ5LGқƗ¶RI -DEDO$Enj4XED\V+HXVHGWRFODLPWKDWWKH 337,KDGEHHQHVWDEOLVKHGDVHDUO\DV and that the initials then stood for Persatuan Pembela 7KDULTDW,VODP (Union of Defenders
of the Islamic TҐDUƯTD 7KLV RUJDQL]DWLRQ VHHPVWREHDWWDFKHGWRWKH1DTVKEDQGƯRUGHU DQGLQWKH¿UVW,QGRQHVLDQHOHFWLRQVLQ a Sumatran 1DTVKEDQGƯwas elected to the national parliament as the sole representative of the tariqa political party.
7KHSURJUHVVDFKLHYHGE\VX¿FDQEH seen in the development of the tariqa, which FRQVLVWRIOHYHOV
1. The level of the NKDQTD VX¿ FHQWHU where the shaykh leads his disciples in their devotions. They perform spiritual H[HUFLVHV VHSDUDWHO\ DQG FROOHFWLYHO\$W WKLV VWDJH WKHUH LV OLWWOH VSHFLDOL]DWLRQ XQWLOWKHWKFHQWXU\DWZKLFKSRLQWVX¿
entered its golden age.
2. The stage of the tariqa, which occurred LQ WKH WK FHQWXU\ $W WKLV VWDJH WKH teachings, rules and methods had been developed. The silsila of each tariqa was declared and there was developed a new, FROOHFWLYH PHWKRG LQ VSLULWXDO H[HUFLVH VX¿ UHDFKHG WKH SHRSOH RI PLGGOH FODVV 1HYHUWKHOHVVLWDOVRVWDUWHGWRGHFOLQHDW this stage.
7KHT̔Ɨ¶LID VWDJH RFFXUUHG LQ WKH WK century. At that time the teachings and rules were being transmitted from the teacher to his disciples. The cult of shaykhs was a common feature, and at WKLV VWDJH VX¿ ZDV FDWFKLQJ RQ DW WKH grass roots level.
The tariqas became great communities, comprising all strata of society, offering something to the educated and uneducated alike, tolerating a wide range of folk practices,
\HWSUHVHUYLQJDQGH[WHQGLQJDJUHDWWUDGLWLRQ of spirituality. The NKDQTD offered lodging to travelers, medical treatment for the sick and help for the poor. For the period between the twelfth and nineteenth centuries it is hardly possible to write on any aspect of religion and society in the Islamic world without
0DUWLQ YDQ %UXLQHVVHQ ³7KH 2ULJLQV DQG 'HYHORSPHQW RI WKH 1DTVKEDQGƯ 2UGHU LQ ,QGRQHVLD´
Der Islam
reference to the tariqas, yet it is precisely this period that has been most neglected by modern scholars. Until the beginning of the 20th century the tariqas still played a great role in Islamic society, where the orientation WRWKHOLIHLQWKHKHUHDIWHUZDVYHU\LQÀXHQWLDO In spite of their political vitality it is not VXUSULVLQJWKDWWKHLQÀXHQFHRIWKHWDULTDVZDV reduced to a minimum after the appearance of reformist movements inaugurated by people OLNH -DPƗO DO'ƯQ DO$IJKƗQƯ 0XKҝammad µ$EGXK DQG 5DVKƯG 5LGқƗ¶ EXW HVSHFLDOO\
Kemal Ataturk who believed that the tariqa was one of the factors that contributed to the weakness of the Muslims. The opposite, however, may be the case in our own time, ZKHQ WKH LQÀXHQFH RI PDWHULDOLVP FUHDWHV various complicated social problems. One might say that to face these we need to UHWXUQ WR WKH YDOXH RI VSLULWXDOLVP VX¿ ZLWK its inward elements and noble attitude could play an important role. However, it should be HPSKDVL]HGKHUHWKDWWKHSUDFWLFHRIVSLULWXDO H[HUFLVHV GRHV QRW QHFHVVDULO\ UHVXOW LQ neglect of worldly concerns.
2Q WKH RQH KDQG VX¿ PD\ IXO¿OO RQH¶V need for spiritual and moral values in the challenging times of today and the positive value given by tasauf maybe seen as a means toward educating a community as to its moral responsibilities. On the other hand, WKH LPDJLQDU\ DVSHFW RI VX¿ PLJKW EHFRPH a boomerang that would weaken the critical faculties of a Muslim, thus causing stagnation and setting back Muslims’ progress. Even DO*KD]ƗOƯ H[SODLQV WKDW VX¿ SHRSOH DUH QRW interested in the knowledge of WDµOƯPL\\D that can be learned from books. They prefer mainly the knowledge gained through LOKƗPL\\D and laduniyya. The knowledge of the ladunnƯ LV regarded as greater than that of the WDµOƯPL.
A.H. Johns, “TѽDUƯTDK´ LQThe Encyclopedia RI 5HOLJLRQ 9RO 0LUFHD (OLDGH HG 1HZ <RUN 0DFPLOODQ3XEOLVKLQJ&RPSDQ\
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is seen as weakening Muslims and leading them to innovation (ELGµD), superstition (NKXUDIƗW and imagination (takhayyul.) At WKLVHDUOLHUSHULRGVX¿VWHQGHGWRHPSKDVL]H WKHGHYHORSPHQWRIVX¿EURWKHUKRRGVZKLFK were devoted to practices such as wird and dhikr, whereas religious revivalism tended to HPSKDVL]H UDWLRQDO WKLQNLQJ DV VXFK DQG WKH abandonment of mystical beliefs.
The late nineteenth and early twentieth century saw the orders attacked on all sides, but it was not this which made the difference from past time. Attackers had never been wanting; their beliefs had been refuted, their practices condemned, their dervishes ULGLFXOHG DQG RFFDVLRQDOO\ H[HFXWHG DQG WKHLUVKD\NKVFDVWLJDWHG1RQHRIWKLVDEDWHG their popularity to the slightest degree.
What we have seen in our time has been a process of erosion set in motion through the WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\ VSUHDG RI VHFXODUL]DWLRQ with consequent changes in the social order DQG WKH LQ¿OWUDWLRQ RI VHFXODULVW LGHDV 7KLV SURFHVVRIFKDQJHKDVVRXQGHUPLQHGWKHVX¿
orders that in many parts of the Arab world in particular and other Islamic countries in general, they have declined.
Reform took the form of struggle against ELGµD(innovations) and reinforcement of the Sunna. So it had been with Muhҝammad ibn µ$EGDO:DKKƗEWKRXJKWKLVW\SHRIUHIRUP aroused the opposition of the µXODPƗ¶7KHQ towards the end of the century, the 6DOD¿
movement ascribed the stagnation of Muslim lands to the corruption of life through ELGµD, and stressed that reformation could only come through the elimination of aberrations DQGDUHYLYL¿FDWLRQRIWKHSunna. The 6DOD¿
movement, associated with Muhҝammad µ$EGXK DQG 5DVKƯG 5LGқƗ¶ RSSRVHG QHDUO\
every aspect of the orders as degenerate and VX¿ SURSHU DV XQ,VODPLF ZKLOVW WROHUDWLQJ
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Attacks from IXTDKƗ¶ and secular autho- rity have been persistent, albeit intermittent, WKURXJKRXW WKH ZKROH KLVWRU\ RI VX¿
though in practice a parallelism of religious authority was admitted; but in the past these attacks had never done more than lead to WKH FRQGHPQDWLRQ RI LQGLYLGXDO VX¿V DQG the suppression of particular orders. They never affected their position in the life of Muslim communities, since they ministered WR D UHOLJLRXV QHHG DQG ¿OOHG D JDS LQ WKH H[SUHVVLRQ RI WKH GHHSHU PHDQLQJ RI ,VODP We have seen that the virtual disappearance of the orders in many lands by the middle of the twentieth century did not come through DWWDFNHLWKHUH[WHUQDORULQWHUQDO,WZDVWKH changing outlook that made the attacks of the critics, µXODPƗ¶, modernists, and new men, more effective and enabled them to enlist the aid of authority.
7XUNH\ZKHUHWKHVHFXODUL]LQJPRYHPHQW of Mustafa Kemal brought about their SURKLELWLRQ LQ LV DQ H[DPSOH RI ZKDW has been taking place less spectacularly in other countries through the process of VHFXODUL]DWLRQFKDQJHVLQWKHRXWORRNDQGLQ WKH VRFLDO RUGHU XQGHUPLQLQJ FRQ¿GHQFH LQ former religious ways.
To begin with there was the spread of ideas of Islamic reform; return to the purity of primitive Islam, condemnation of innovations, and the struggle against superstitions became watchwords. The orders were particularly susceptible to this form of attack, for they
A distinction must be made between those castigating the orders as enemies of progress and the RSLQLRQ RI RUWKRGR[ FLUFOHV IROORZLQJ ROG OLQHV $O 6DQnjVƯTXRWHV6KD\NKDO=DUUnjTDVVD\LQJWKDW³WKHZRUN RIDO*KD]ƗOƯDUHWKH0\VWLFLVPRIWKHOHJDOLVWV´Inna NXWXED¶O*KD]ƗOƯWDV̞DZZXIXµOIXTDKƗ¶6HHDO6DQnjVƯ
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J.W. McPherson’s account in 7KH 0RXOLGV RI Egypt&DLURLVDOPRVWDODPHQWRQWKHLUGHFOLQH and the effect of governmental restrictions upon mawlid festivals.
KDYH SDLG WKH SHQDOW\ RI LQVWLWXWLRQDOL]DWLRQ and especially of the adoption of the principle of heredity in holiness. Formerly, legal WUHDWLVHV KDG EHHQ WDXJKW WRJHWKHU ZLWK VX¿
in their establishments, but during the last hundred years those seeking Islamic learning KDGWXUQHGDOPRVWH[FOXVLYHO\WRFHQWHUVVXFK as the Azhar or 4DUƗZL\\ƯQ. This broke the DOOLDQFH EHWZHHQ RUWKRGR[\ DQG VX¿ DQG meant that the content of studies became formal and unilluminated and that the orders lost the support of many of the IXTDKƗ¶ class.20
2WKHUV LQÀXHQFHG E\ QHZ FRQFHSWLRQV who felt that Islam must be ready to relate itself to the new world into which they were being drawn, were even more opposed to the RUGHUV)HZREMHFWHGRXWULJKWWRVX¿VPDVDQ LQGLYLGXDO VSLULWXDO GLVFLSOLQH RQ *KD]ƗOƯDQ lines, even though they may have thought it a waste of time, but the form it had taken, LWV H[WUDYDJDQW SRSXODU PDQLIHVWDWLRQV ZDV a different matter, and they held the orders responsible for the stagnation that had overtaken life in Muslim countries. They sought to discredit the shaykhs, not merely
20 Trimingham, The 6X¿ 2UGHUV LQ ,VODP See also W. Cantwell Smith, ,VODPLQ0RGHUQ+LVWRU\
3ULQFHWRQ3ULQFHWRQ8QLYHUVLW\3UHVVZKR points out that many nineteenth-century reformers had H[SHULHQFHG VX¿ LQÀXHQFH LQ WKHLU HDUO\ \HDUVVXFK FRQWUDVWLQJ SHUVRQV DV WKH SDQ,VODPLF $IJKƗQƯ WKH Egyptian µƗOLP MuhҝDPPDGµ$EGXKWKH1XELDQ0DKGƯ Muhҝammad Ahҝmad, the philosopher of the Ataturk UHYROXWLRQ=L\D*RNDOSDQGWKH3DN,QGLDQ0XKDPPDG Iqbal. Light is thrown upon this aspect of the lives of
$IJKƗQƯ DQG µ$EGXK LQ (OLH .HGRXULH¶V$IJKƗQƯ DQG µ$EGXK /RQGRQ µ$EGXK¶V VFHSWLFLVP ZHQW beyond intellectual bounds, since his relationship to
$IJKƗQƯ ZDV WKDW RI VRPH IRUP RItawajjuh or UƗELẂa VHHSSDQGOHWWHURIµ$EGXKWR$IJKƗQƯRQSS D WHFKQLTXH$IJKƗQƯ PD\ KDYH DFTXLUHG LQ ,QGLD
$IJKƗQƯ DOVR PDLQWDLQHG WKH 6X¿ GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ H[RWHULF DQG HVRWHULF WHDFKLQJ EHWZHHQ ZKDW RQH professes openly and what one divulges to the adept. So pervasive was 6X¿LQÀXHQFHLQ,VODPLFOLIHWKDWFRQWDFW ZDVLQYROXQWDU\DQGXQDYRLGDEOH%XWWKHVHVDPHPHQ reacted against their shaykh and mode of worship, and discarded the whole system, even though their thought ZDVFRORUHGLQVRPHUHVSHFWVE\WKHLUHDUO\H[SHULHQFHV Today, in the modern world, children grow up without HYHQWKDWXQFRQVFLRXVH[SHULHQFH
on this account, but also because they were particularists, limited, unenthusiastic about burning issues like nationalism, and were too attached to clan, family, and local traditions.
%XWPRVWLPSRUWDQWRIDOOZDVWKHJHQHUDO SURFHVV RI VHFXODUL]DWLRQ PHDQLQJ E\ WKLV term the process of change from a social and cultural system informed through- out by religion, to an order in which the spheres of life, science and art, political and economic activities, society and culture, and also morality and religion itself, became autonomous spheres. This movement of change was largely unconscious, unnoticed, DQG FRQWLQXRXV 7KH VX¿ RUGHUV ZHUH WKH vehicles, not the substance, of the mystic life, and as the urge to the mystic life weakened so did the orders.
7KHGHFOLQHRIVX¿KDVFRLQFLGHGZLWKWKH decline of the Islamic religious sciences i.e., ,VODPLF SKLORVRSK\ WKHRORJ\ H[HJHVLV DQG law. Today, opposed by the µXODPƗ¶, by the 6DOD¿-type of fundamentalist reformers, and E\ WKH VHFXODUL]HG QHZ PHQ DQG SULPDULO\
undermined by changes taking place in the whole social and religious climate, the VX¿
orders are in decline everywhere.21
5DWLRQDOL]LQJ UHOLJLRQ ZLOO OHDG WR D IRUPDOL]HG OHJDOLVWLF ,VODP DQG ZLOO WHQG WR narrow its religious aspects and moral values.
An attitude that does not distinguish between +̔DOƗO(lawful) and +̔DUƗP (unlawful) has already become a style of life in the society.
The development of modern thinking which HPSKDVL]HV UDWLRQDO ORJLF ZLOO GHFUHDVH WKH VDFUHGYDOXHDQGDZDUHQHVVRIWKHH[LVWHQFH of sin, which is sometimes full of temptation.
Crime, drug addiction, corruption and violence, and the disappearance of moral values in the community are phenomena of the decline of this awareness. Hence we notice perhaps the appearance of counter culture ZKLFKDLPVDWUHDFWXDOL]LQJWKHWHDFKLQJVRI VX¿LQPRGHUQOLIH
21 Trimingham, The 6X¿2UGHUVLQ,VODP
The appearance of young artists and poets among Indonesian Muslims who are SD\LQJPRUHDWWHQWLRQWRWKHSUDFWLFHRIVX¿
has surprised an Australian professor, who sees it as an unusual phenomenon, since such enthusiasm, when allowed to develop without the reformation of the teaching of VX¿ PLJKW FUHDWHNKXUDIƗW WDNKD\\XO and ELGµD. That is why Prof. Hamka suggests that VX¿ VKRXOG UHWXUQ WR WKH 4XU¶ƗQ DQG 6XQQD because this approach will help it adjust to the spirit of modern times. Others call for a UHIRUPDWLRQRIVX¿WRPDNHLWWKHWKLUGSLOODU of religion, which is ih̡VƗQ. Ih̡VƗQ means that
“you worship God, as if you see Him, and when you do not see Him, indeed He sees you.”
Though the orders can never regain their IRUPHU LQÀXHQFH LQ ,VODPLF OLIH WKH\ ZLOO FRQWLQXHWRH[LVWIRUWKHUHDUHDOZD\VVRPH peasants, artisans, and intellectuals who need the type of spiritual solace they offer, or are ready to seek in them a way of escape RU UHIXJH IURP WKH DQ[LHWLHV RI OLIH LQ WKH modern world, as their ancestors found in them a counterbalance to the ordinary man’s political, economic, and religious impotence.
Secular institutions and a modern outlook do not satisfy a minority, who feel the need to maintain spiritual values.
Sociologically speaking, we have seen religion displaced, or reduced from being the regulative principle behind life, sustaining and molding society, to become one among many aspects of social life, though receiving special recognition as a factor of differentiation within the universalism of secular culture. At the same time, Islam continues to be the guiding principle in the personal lives of vast numbers of people, and ZLWKLQ ,VODP WKH VX¿ WUDGLWLRQ ZLOO FRQWLQXH WRIXO¿OOLWVPLVVLRQRIPDLQWDLQLQJWKHGHHSHU spiritual values through the special linkage and relationship with the spiritual world that
the tariqa represents.22
In modern Indonesia, Hamka, according WR 1XUFKROLVK 0DGMLG LV UHVSRQVLEOH IRU KDYLQJ SURPRWHG WKH QRWLRQ RI D QHZ VX¿
in Indonesia. He appreciates the role that it can play in the implementation of an esoteric Islam. It can dispense with the practice of µX]OD while still being actively involved in society. Once in a while however the practice of µX]OD could be recommended as a means of refreshing one’s mind and as a starting point to perform more good deeds.
$FFRUGLQJ WR )D]OXU 5DKPDQ Ibn 7D\PL\\DDQG,EQ4D\\LPDO-DZ]L\\DERWK FODVVLFDO ¿JXUHV ZHUH WKH SLRQHHUV RI QHR VX¿VP 1HRVX¿VP LV FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ DQ emphasis on moral motive and the application the methods of dhikr and PXUƗTDED or spiritual concentration on God. The objective DQGWKHFRQWH[WRIFRQFHQWUDWLRQDUHWKHVDPH as those in 6DOD¿ doctrine. The purpose is to strengthen belief in the true µDTƯGD and assist LQ WKH PRUDO SXUL¿FDWLRQ RI WKH VRXO 7KH SKHQRPHQRQRIQHRVX¿VPFDQFRQWULEXWHWR the re-birth of 6DOD¿ activities and a positive attitude towards the world.7RVRPHH[WHQW WKH\DGPLWWKHWUXHFODLPRILQWHOOHFWXDOVX¿
they accept the NDVKIH[SHULHQFHRIFDSWXULQJ
*RG¶V WUXWK RI WKH VX¿V RU WKHLU LQWXLWLYH LQVSLUDWLRQEXWUHMHFWVX¿FODLPVRILQIDOOLELOLW\
(PDµV̞njP); indeed both Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn 4D\\LP DO-DZ]L\\D DGPLWWHG WKDW WKH\ KDG H[SHULHQFHGNDVKI. The legitimacy of NDVKI is
22 Trimingham, The 6X¿2UGHUVLQ,VODP
1XUFKROLVK0DGMLG³6X¿VPH%DUXGDQ6X¿VPH Lama: Masalah Kontinuitas dan Perkembangan dalam Esoterisme Islam,” in Djohan Effendi (ed.), 6X¿VPHGDQ 0DVD 'HSDQ $JDPD -DNDUWD 3XVWDND )LUGDXV 112. In fact the practice of µX]OD or even zuhdE\VX¿VLV only a pre-condition or a stage, not an end, therefore this does not mean denying being active in social life.
)D]OXU5DKPDQIslam (Chicago: The University RI&KLFDJR3UHVV
In fact this attitude has been performed since the Prophet’s lifetime, followed by his Companions and HDUO\VX¿V7RVRPHH[WHQWLWLVWUXHWKDWVRPHLQGLYLGXDO VX¿VWULHGWRHPSKDVL]HPRUHWKHDVSHFWRIWKHKHUHDIWHU VLQFHWKH4XU¶ƗQPHQWLRQVLWVLPSRUWDQFH
HTXDOWRPRUDOFOHDQQHVVDQGWKHSXUL¿FDWLRQ of the heart to an unlimited degree.
7KHUH LV D VX¿ HOHPHQW LQ µ6RFLDO Spiritualism’ (DO5njK̡ƗQL\\D DO,MWLPƗµL\\D) as well, which features certain signs of spiritualism (PDµƗOLPDOẂDUƯT):
1. Reciting and contemplating the meaning RIWKHKRO\4XU¶ƗQ
2. Reciting and studying the meaning of prophet’s presence through Sunna and his VƯUD (biography.)
0DLQWDLQLQJ UHODWLRQVKLSV ZLWK JRRG people such as µXODPƗ¶ and Muslims who perform zuhd.
.HHSLQJRQHVHOIDZD\IURPEDGDWWLWXGHV and behavior.
7R VWXG\ WKH VRXO DQG PHWDSK\VLFV DV these are portrayed in the 4XU¶ƗQ and SunnaZLWKDVHQVHRIƯPƗn (belief.) 7R SHUIRUP REOLJDWRU\ ZRUVKLS DQG
Sunna¿YHWLPHVDGD\DQGtah̡ajjud.
In the ,QGRQHVLDQ FRQWH[W IRU H[DPSOH one might consider the case of the tariqa 4ƗGLUL\\D ZD 1DTVKEDQGL\\D, which through the efforts of its most dynamic branch in Suryalaya, has gained a lot of attention from the mass media for its system of curing young drug addicts. Abah Anom, the head of the tariqa’s pesantren there, has developed a system for curing drug abusers through dhikr. This system was developed as a result of his belief in the practical H[SHULHQFH RI VX¿ PDVWHUV DQG WKH FRQFHSW that dhikr Allah contains enlightenments, special characteristics and secrets which help to cure the hearts of Muslim believers. This belief is based on God’s saying, “Remember me, I’ll remember you. When you remember your God, the curtain of heedlessness will be removed from you, you will be the GKƗNLU (and you) will be remembered, the one who is thankful (and you) will be thanked.”
6DµƯG 5DPDGқƗQ$O5njK̡ƗQL\\D DO,MWLPƗµL\\D
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Whatever the reason for the success and EHQH¿WVRIdhikr in Pesantren Suryalaya, the results are beyond question, as is demonstrated by the large numbers of those who have been cured of their dependency. 1RUPDOO\ WKH KHDOLQJ SURFHVV ZLOO WDNH EHWZHHQ GD\V DQGPRQWKVRUPRUH
)URP WKH HOHPHQWV RI WKH VX¿ WHDFKLQJV and practices discussed in the above, we can SHUKDSV VHH WKDW WKH JHQXLQH QDWXUH RI VX¿
tradition is being maintained, and that this will never be lost. The Path, in our age as in the past, is for the few who are prepared to pay the price, but the vision of the few who, following the way of personal encounter and commitment, escape from Time to know re-creation, remains vital for the spiritual welfare of mankind.
Conclusion
From our discussion above we may FRQFOXGHWKDWWKHHPSKDVLVRIVX¿RQLQGLYLGXDO SLHW\ UHVXOWV LQ SHUVRQDO VDWLVIDFWLRQ ¿OOV D personal need for a link to the creator as the beloved. This attitude would be better if it could be manifested towards God’s creatures as well, both to human beings and nature.
Individual piety should not be separated from social piety and environmental piety.
,Q ZRUOGO\ OLIH ZKHUH YDULRXV FRQÀLFWV and misunderstandings have colored society, the spirit of love needs to be fostered in the KHDUWVRIKXPDQEHLQJV7KHHVVHQFHRIVX¿
LV ORYH DQG FDUH ZKLFK SHRSOH FDQ XWLOL]H DV D PHDQV WR GHYHORS DQG DFWXDOL]H WKHLU relationships with human beings and their HQYLURQPHQW 7KURXJK VX¿ WKH GLI¿FXOWLHV
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Trimingham, The 6X¿2UGHUVLQ,VODP
in life that are caused by materialism and hedonism, this world that is full of pollution and lacks resources, can all be solved by changing pessimism into optimism, worry LQWRKRSHDQGKDWHWRORYH2QO\VX¿KDVWKH spiritual potential to avoid the absolutism that enslaves people. Perhaps those seeking to develop their religious life should turn PRUHWRVX¿IRULQLWOLHVWKHHVVHQFHDQGWKH future of religion.
6X¿FDQVWLOOSOD\DVLJQL¿FDQWUROHDVD WRRORIPRUDOHGXFDWLRQDVZHOODVLQWKH¿HOG of psychiatry. This remains to be seen in many parts of the Islamic world, but the potential
LV DOZD\V WKHUH ,W LV GLI¿FXOW WR PHDVXUH LWV success and yet at the same time is perhaps too early to say that it is in decline because the general trend in the Muslim world since the nineteenth century, in which people try WR UDWLRQDOL]H RU VHFXODUL]H PDQ\ DVSHFWV RI human life and develop their nation for the VDNHRIHFRQRPLFVXFFHVVDQGSUR¿WPDNLQJ only, seems to ignore its importance. In fact VX¿ SUHVHUYHV WKH WUXO\ LPSRUWDQW DVSHFWV RI life for human beings without rejecting the ZRUOG 6X¿ FDQbe quite realistic without being materialistic.
