NEN CHUYEN CHINH DAN CHL) CACH MANG JACOBIN DINH CAO CUA CACH MANG PHAP
DO THANH BINH
NGUVilN THI HUYEN SAM"
C
ach m a n g tU s a n P h a p cuo'i the' ki XVIII da de lai da'u an s a u sac trong lich sil the' gidi t r o n g suo't t h e ki XIX, dau t h e ki XX va da thiic t i n h liJc lUdng dan chu, tien be diing len chong che do phong kien c h u y e n che va che do thiic d a n . Day la cuoc each m a n g tU s a n co a n h hUdng rong 16n, co y n g h i a quo'c te 16n lao. A n h huong n a y duoc t a o r a hai c h i n h t i n h t r i e t de va tien bo cua no m a k h o n g mot cuoc each m a n g t u s a n n a o dien ra trvr6c va s a u do CO t h e d a t dUdc. T i n h t r i e t de va tien bo ciia Cach m;ing t u s a n P h a p dUdc t h e hien ro net cl viec giai q u y e t cac n h i e m vu d a n toe va d a n chii t r o n g suo't lien t r i n h ciia each m a n g tii 1789 den 1799, dac biet la giai doan ciim q u y e n ciia p h a i Jacobin (tii ngay 2 - 6 - 1 7 9 3 d e n n g a y 27-7-1794).Ke tii s a u khi each m a n g b u n g no n g a y 14-7-1789 don t r u 6 c n g a y 2 - 6 - 1 7 9 3 , Cach m a n g P h a p da t r a i q u a h a i giai doan gan lien v6i vai tro cua p h a i dai tU s a n lap hien va phai G i r o n d e . O t r o n g h a i giai doan nay, nhOng n h i e m vu cO b a n cua mgt cu(5c each
m a n g t u s a n da dUdc giai quye't. Do la viec t h u tieu che do p h o n g kien chuyen che', dac quyen ciia giao hgi, n h a thd, thiet lap nen q u a n chu lap hien (Hien ph,ap 1791) va nen cong hoa (Tuyen bo' ciia Hiep hgi Dan tgc - 21-9-1792), xoa bo che do sci hUu ruong da't phong kien, t h i e t lap che do tU hUu ruong da't cho giai cap tU san... Nguy cd xam lUdc ciia cac t h e liic p h o n g kien ben ngoai bu6c d a u bi day liii (cuo'i n a m 1792). Tuy nhien, vice giai quyet nhUng n h i e m vu dan tgc va d a n chti neu t r e n van chifa thoa man yeu cau ciia cac t a n g 16p qufin c h u n g nhtin dan P h a p . Van de r u o n g da't chUa dUdc giai quyet cho n o n g d a n , gia ca cac mat h a n g n h u ye'u p h a m gia t a n g (1) a n h hUdng triic tiep den ddi song kho k h a n cua nong dan va b i n h d a n t h a n h thi. T h e m vao do, each m a n g P h a p va chu quyen cua nUtfic P h a p bi lam nguy khi lien m i n h cho'ng P h a p dUdc h i n h t h a n h (dau n a m 1793) (2).
T r o n g h o a n c a n h do, q u a n chiing d Paris da noi day khoi n g h i a ngay 31-5-1793, doi b a t nhUng ngUdi ciia p h a i Girondc va bao
• GS, TS, Khoa Lich sti - TrUdng Dai hoc Su pham Ha Ngi '" TS. Khoa Lich sii - TrUting Dai hgc Su pham Ha Ngi
32 Rghien ciJru Lich sii'. so 12.2009 vay Hiep hgi Dan toe ngay 2-6-1793, bat
giam cac nghi si va bo trUdng thugc phai Gironde. Sau hai sU kien nay, chinh quyen each mang chuyen vao tay phai Jacobin.
Len nam chinh quyen trong tinh hinh kho khan nhu vay, phai Jacobin da thiic hien hang loat cac chinh sach de thie't lap va giU vOng nen chuyen chinh ciia minh.
Thd nhdt, phdi Jacobin dd gidi quyet vdn de rudng ddt cho nong ddn, dn dinh ddi sd'ng eua tdng Idp binh ddn d thdnh thi.
Thiic te nam 1789, d Phap nong dan chiem 80% dan so', nhUng chi chiem khoang 30%
ruong da't (3). Tuy nhien, khi len nfim quyen sau sU kien pha nguc Bastille, phai dai tu san lap hien m6i chi thong qua cac phap Ipnh xoa bo dac quyen phong kien, budc ddu giai quyet van de ruong dat, song khong CO Idi cho nong dan. TiX ngay 5 de'n 11-8-1789, Quo'c hgi lap hien thong qua phap lenh xoa bo tap thue, dia to phong kien do'i vdi nong dan, nhung vdi dieu kien nong dan phai bo tien ra chugc mdi dUdc hudng nhQng quyen Idi do, ngUdc lai ne'u nong dan khong cd tien chugc van tiep tuc phai nop thue va chiu cac nghia vu phong kien (4). Dong thdi, Quo'c hgi lap hien ciing quyet dinh tich thu ruong da't ciia nha thd chia thanh nhung manh Idn gan nd cho cac nha tu ban tai chinh (5). Khi phai Gironde cam quyen, nong dan van khong cd ruong da't. Thang 8-1792, Hiep hgi Dan tgc da thong qua sac lenh chia da't dai ciia qui tgc di cU ban cho nong dan, nhUng tat ca deu khong dUdc thUc hien (6). Xuat phat til nhan thiic vai trd quan trgng cua quan chiing, nha't la nong dan do'i vdi each mang, phai Jacobin da van dgng, tap hdp hg bang viec ban hanh cac sac lenh lien quan den van de ruong da't. Chi hai ngay sau khi len nam quyen, phai Jacobin c6 anh hUdng Idn trong Hiep hgi Dan tgc da thdng qua sac
lenh ngay 3-6-1793, qui dinh chia da't tich thu cua qui tgc di cU, ciia hoang gia va cua giao hgi, t h a n h nhieu manh nhd va ban cho nong dan khong cd hoac cd ra't it ruong da't theo phUdng thiic tra dan trong 10 nam (7).
Sac lenh cdn qui dinh chia cho moi ban ndng mgt acpen (gan niia ha) trong so' dat dai ciia qui tgc di cU ne'u ndi dd khong cd cong dien. Sac lenh ngay 10-6-1793 qui dinh nhiing ruong da't cong da bi qui tgc cUdp doat trong vdng 20 nam trd lai deu dUdc la'y lai va chia cho ndng dan va dieu chinh de moi ngUdi cd mgt manh rudng bang nhau (8). Ben canh dd, phai Jacobin cdn ban hanh sSc lenh ngay 17-7-1793, xda bd cac dac quyen phong kien, ndng dan dUdc giai phdng khdi mgi thii thue ddng gdp cho qui tgc ma khong phai boi thUdng.
Cac khe Udc cac van tU phong kien bi dd't, viec tang trii cac giay td dd bi coi la tgi nang, cd the bi tii khd' sai (9). Ngoai ra, phai Jacobin cdn thiic hien qui dinh gia to'i da dd'i vdi cac mat hang thie't yeu, nham han che gian thudng dau cd va d'n dinh ddi sd'ng cho binh dan thanh thi. Ta't ca nhiing chinh sach nay dUdc thdng qua trong hai thang va chi trong mgt thdi gian ngan Jacobin da lam dUdc mgt viec ma trong may nam cac phai dai tU san lap hien va Gironde khdng lam dUdc nen da dUa each mang Phap len den dinh cao. Nhiing chinh sach nay da pha hoai tan gd'c che do phong kien, bien tang Idp ndng dan trUdc kia phu thudc vao phong kien thanh nhiing ngUdi tieu tu hiiu tU do va thie't lap che do kinh te tieu ndng, nd tao nhiing dieu kien thuan lgi cho sU phat trien tU ban chu nghia d nudc Phap. Chinh sach rugng da't ciia Jacobin la triet de nha't trong lich sii cac cuoc each mang tU san. Tang Idp tieu ndng ddng dao do chinh sach dd tao ra da trcl thanh thanh tri viing chac cho nUdc Phap
Ren chuyen chinh dan chii each mang Jacobin. 33
each m a n g , t h a n h lUc lUdng s a n g t a o n h i i n g chien cdng h u y h o a n g cho cudc chien t r a n h bao ve To' qud'c n h i i n g n a m 1 7 9 3 -
1794.
ThU hai, phdi Jacobin dd xay dUng ditoc cd sd phdp li de thUc hien nen ddn chu. Dd la viec p h a i J a c o b i n da soan t h a o va t h d n g qua H i e n p h a p (24-6-1793). Mac dii chi c h u a n bi t r o n g 2 t u a n le, nhUng Hien p h a p 1793 thiic sU la b a n H i e n p h a p d a n chii nha't thdi can dai. TrUdc Hien p h a p 1793 da cd b a n T u y e n ngdn N h a n q u y e n va D a n quyen do Sieyes (1748-1836) soan t h a o , chfnh thiic dUdc cdng bd' n g a y 2 6 - 8 - 1 7 8 9 . Tuyen ngdn chi ro m u c dich ciia xa hdi la vi h a n h phiic c h u n g va c h i n h p h u cd n g h i a vu phai d a m bao n h i i n g q u y e n tii n h i e n va khdng t h e x a m p h a m , dd la q u y e n tU do, binh d a n g , a n n i n h va tU hufu. Dong thdi, cdng d a n dUdc q u y e n tU do tin ngUdng, lao dgng, ngdn l u a n , kien n g h i (10)... Rd r a n g , ngi d u n g cd b a n cua H i e n p h a p 1793 la sU k h a n g d i n h n h i i n g ndi d u n g cua T u y e n ngdn N h a n q u y e n va D a n quyen, chi rd muc dich cua xa hdi la h a n h phiic c h u n g , n h a nUdc p h a i d a m bao cho con ngUdi nhQng q u y e n t u i i h i e n , ba't k h a x a m p h a m , n h u quyen tii do, binh d a n g , an n i n h , lao ddng, t u do tin n g u d n g , quyen t u hQu, t h a m chi ca q u y e n khdi n g h i a c h d n g ap bQc, p h a n ddi c h i n h q u y e n . Day dUdc coi la q u y e n thieng lieng ciia con ngUdi (11). Vdi Hien p h a p mdi, Qudc hdi l a p p h a p - cd q u a n tdi cao cua n e n cdng hda dUdc t h a n h lap. Nd dUdc b a u r a h a n g n a m t h e o che do phd thdng d a u p h i e u triic tie'p, ta't ca cac cdng dan tQ 21 tud'i trd len d e u dUdc di b a u . Qud'c hgi l a p p h a p b a u r a mdt Hgi dong cha'p c h i n h gom 24 uy vien, h a n g n a m 1/2 s d i i y vien dUdc b a u lai (12). NhU vay, Hien p h a p 1793, k h d n g chQa d u n g nhQng ndi dung mdi m e m a chi la sii ke thQa T u y e n
ngdn N h a n q u y e n va D a n quyen 1789. Tuy n h i e n , cac q u y e n cua con ngUdi se v i n mai m a i la t r e n gia'y td ne'u khdng xay diing dUdc cd che p h a p li (quan trgng n h a t la h i e n p h a p ) de thiic hien nd. Dieu nay da dUdc m i n h chQng ra't rd bdi sU m a u thuSn giQa ndi d u n g cua T u y e n ngdn N h a n quyen va D a n q u y e n 1789 vdi ndi d u n g cua Hien p h a p 1791. Hien p h a p 1791 qui dinh che do bau cQ theo tai s a n , theo dd n a m gidi 25 tuoi trd len cd t a i s a n la "cdng dan tich ciic"
cd quyen b a u cii, nhQng cdng dan khdng cd tai san la "cdng d a n tieu ciic", khdng cd q u y e n b a u cQ (13). Do dd, Hien p h a p 1791 da tudc doat quyen b a u cU, quyen hinh d a n g cua nhQng ngUdi ngheo trong xa hgi.
So vdi Hien p h a p 1791, Hien p h a p 1793 d a n h da'u budc p h a t t r i e n cao hdn, each m a n g hdn t r o n g tien t r i n h each m a n g tU san P h a p vdi viec t u y e n bd' tritdc t h e gidi nhQng n g u y e n tac tii do va d a n chu ciia mgt n e n d a n chii tU san tien bg hdn han.
Mac du cd n h i e u diem tien bd, nhUng Hien p h a p 1793 k h d n g dUdc thi h a n h . Tuy n h i e n , viec t h d n g qua Hien p h a p van la mgt quye't dinh h e t sQc s a n g sud't ciia chinh quyen J a c o b i n t r o n g h o a n canh dac bigt cua nudc P h a p : n e n cdng hda d a n g bi nguy kich trUdc sii ca'u ke't ciia t h u trong, giac ngoai, n h a m bop chet nUdc P h a p each m a n g .
Thit ba, phdi Jacobin dd xay dUng dUdc mgt he thd'ng chuyen chinh ddn chu cdch mang. 6 t r u n g Udng, quyen liic cua Hiep hdi D a n tdc b a t d a u dudc t a n g cUdng tQ t h a n g 7-1793 vdi tU each vQa la cd q u a n lap p h a p , vQa la cd q u a n h a n h chinh. Cd q u a n dieu h a n h cd chQc n a n g nhU mdt chinh p h u gom 21 uy b a n , q u a n t r g n g nha't la Uy b a n An n i n h , gom 12 ngUdi deu la t h a n h vien cua Hiep hgi D a n tgc (14). Day la cd q u a n ca'p dudi cua Hiep hdi D a n tdc - cd quyen
34 Rghien cmi Lich siir, so 12.2009
liic quan sii, ngoai giao, hanh chinh dong thdi cd nhiem vu tran ap bgn phan ddng, thanh lap lUc lUdng vu trang nhan dan, tang cUdng nen chuyen chinh each mang. O dia phUdng, ngoai cac td chQc Cdng xa each mang, iiy ban each mang, cdn cd Cau lac bg Jacobin va Hiep hdi nhan dan d cac dia phUdng (15). Day la cac to chQc cd sQ tham gia ddng dao ciia quSn chung nhan dan.
Qua dd cho tha'y td chQc bd may chinh quyen Jacobin diia vQng chac vao cac td chQc quan chung ma nhQng ngQdi Jacobin cd vai trd dac biet quan trgng. Cac chu tritdng, dii luat, cac bien phap chinh tri deu dUdc thao luan trong cac Cau lac bg Jacobin, Cdng xa each mang, Hiep hgi nhan dan dia phUdng trUdc khi dUa ra Hiep hgi Dan tdc xem xet. Cu the, quan chung cd the dUa ra y kien vo dudng Id'i, chinh sach thdng qua cac uy ban each mang gdm 12 ngudi do nhan dan bau ra d cac dia phUdng.
NgUdc lai, cac dao luat, sac lenh cua Hiep hdi Dan tgc cd the nhanh chdng dUdc trien khai thiic hien d tQng ddn vi hanh chinh nhd nha't. Khi nghien cQu, danh gia nhQng thanh qua ciia phai Jacobin, nha sii hgc Mi Isser Woloch - chuyen gia nghien cQu ve lich sii chau Au va Phap thdi can dai da cho rang: "cdc cdu lac bg Jacobin dd trd thdnh dia diem sinh hoat chinh tri thich hdp cho sU tham gia cua nhitng ngUdi ddn thudng "tieu cUc" nhU: thd thu cong, thiiy thu, nghe si, ngUdi buon bdn nhd, vidn chitc vd binh linh" (16).
Chinh mdi lien he giQa Hiep hgi Dan tgc va chinh quyen Jacobin vdi nhan dan, dong thdi viec nhan dan iing hg chinh phu each mang la ngudn dgng lUc chu yeu, la cd sd cho dieu kien tdn tai ciia non chuyen chinh dan chii each mang. Vao giQa nam 1793, cac the liic phan each mang cua phai bao hoang va Gironde dang ngay cang tang
cUdng hoat dong, cac cuoc am sat nhQng ngudi each mang xay ra lien tiep: ngay 13- 7-1793, Marat, mgt trong nhQng nha hoat dgng xua't sac ciia cau lac bd Jacobin bi giet ngay tai nha minh, 3 ngay sau, Thi trudng Cdng xa Lydng cung bi sat hai (17).
Dap lai nhQng h a n h dgng dd, Hiep hgi Dan tgc dUdi sii lanh dao ciia Jacobin da thdng qua mdt loat sac lenh tang cUdng dan ap bgn phan each mang. Dd la viec ngay 17-9, Hiep hdi Dan tgc ban hanh Dao luat "Ke tinh nghi" (18), ra sac lenh bat va kiem tra nhQng phan tii kha nghi. Theo dd, Hoang hau Marie Antoinette, 21 lanh tu ciia phai Gironde cung nhieu ten phan ddng khac bi xQ tu, tai san bi tich thu (19).
Bgn gian thUdng, dau cd, deu bi dUa ra tda.
Cac tda an each mang deu dUdc to chQc lai, qua trinh xii an dUdc rut ggn hdn nham giai quyet n h a n h chdng nhQng trUdng hdp pham tgi.
Diia vao chinh quyen nhan dan, nen chuyen chinh dan chii Jacobin da dap tan ve cd ban liic lUdng phan ddng trong nUdc, tao didu kien thuan Idi cho chien thang ngoai mat tran.
De bao ve each mang, danh bai cac cudc can thigp ciia phong kie'n Ao - Phd' va ca tU san Anh, Uy ban CQu qud'c thanh lap trUdc khdi nghia dUdc cai td', do Robespierre triic tiep lanh dao va thi h a n h nhQng bien phap kien quye't. Ngay 23-8-1793 theo de nghi cua Uy ban CQu qud'c, Hiep hgi Dan tgc thdng qua sac lenh to'ng ddng vien toan qudc. Chi trong ddt ddng vien dau tien, 42 van ngUdi tinh nguyen tdng quan. Dau nam 1794, cd tdi 60 van ngiidi vdi 14 dao quan dUdc trang hi td't, do nhQng tQdng tre trUdng thanh trong each mang chi huy.
Ngoai mat tran, cac chien sT hang hai chien da'u (20). Cho den 12-1793, quan dich d
Ren chuyen chinh dan chii each mang Jacobin... 35 khap ndi deu bi danh bat ra khdi bien gidi
cila nUdc Phap. Gang Tuldng dudc giai phdng khdi quan Anh (19-12-1793). Quan Ao cung tan ra. Andat thoat khdi tay quan ddi Phd - Ao. Quan thu bi quet sach khdi nUdc Phap. Toan bg chau Au bi kinh ngac ve ki tich ciia quan ddi Phap.
Tuy nhien, de giQ vQng nen dan chu chuyen chinh ciia minh, phai Jacobin, dudi sU lanh dao ciia Robespierre da thiic hien chinh sach chuyen chinh mang tinh cue doan, ma thudng bi phe phan la khiing bd'.
Dieu nay dUdc the hien d sd' lUdng ngUdi bi xii tii trong vdng khoang 45 ngay trUdc khi dien ra cudc chinh bien Thermidor (27-7-
1794) len den 1376 ngUdi, trung binh mdi tuan la 196 ngUdi (21). Day la nguyen nhan cd ban lam cho ngi bg Jacobin bi phan hda va chinh quyen Jacobin du cd nhieu chinh sach tien bd, song cung khdng the tdn tai dUdc lau. Han che nay la khd tranh khdi, dung nhu nhan xet cua nha nghien cQu ngUdi Phap R. Levasseur: "Khdng ai lgi di
md tudng thdnh lap mgt nen thdng tri khung bd, md nd dUdc hinh thdnh mgt cdch tu nhien do sdc mgnh cua hodn cdnh dUa ddy; khong cd y chi cua mgt cd nhdn ndo ddn dgc td chdc de hinh thdnh nd, nhUng y chi cua mdi mgt cd nhdn deu dd ddng gop sau khi nd dd xudt hien" (22). Mac du cd nhQng han che, song van phai khang dinh rang, viec xay diing nen chuyen chinh dUa vao quan chung nhan dan cua Jacobin chinh la cd sd cho sQ ton tai va thiic hien cac chinh sach tien bg ciia hg.
Nhu vay, trong dieu kien hoan canh dac biet ciia nUdc Phap each mang vao nam 1793, vdi sii cam quyen ciia phai Jacobin, nhQng nhiem vu dan tdc va dan chu cua mgt cudc each mang tU san da dUdc giai quyet triet de nha't khdng chi ddi vdi tien trinh ciia each mang Phap, danh da'u budc phat trien len den dinh cao cua each mang, ma cdn the hien tinh tie'n bd, dien hinh ciia Cach mang Phap trong sii ddi sanh vdi cac cudc each mang tU san thdi ki can dai.
CHU THICH
(1). Chinh quyen Gironde tien h a n h chien tranh vdi phong kie'n Ao - Pho, lam cho nen tai chi'nh P h a p kiet que. De giai quye't kho k h a n ve tai chinh, t h a y vi viec d a n h t h u e n a n g vao giai ca'p, t i n g Idp giau CO trong xa hoi, chinh quyen Gironde lai p h a t h a n h so Iildng qua Idn t r a i phieu lay tai san cua giao hoi de gan nd. H a u qua la dong tien ma't gia (tinh de'n t h a n g 1-1793, tien ma't gia tdi 50%), lam cho gia lUdng thiic va h a n g tieu dung thie't ye'u t a n g vot. T h e m vao do la hoat dong dau cd tich trtJ ctia bon gian thUdng cang lam cho cac mat h a n g nay trd nen k h a n hiem.
(2). 2-1793, Lien minh chong P h a p gom Ao - Pho, Tay Ban Nha, Bo Dao Nha, Sardegna, Napoli
va Anh vdi muc dfch la lien minh ta't ca cac quoc gia chau Au de cung dan ap cuoc each mang Phap, phuc hoi nen q u a n chti, qua d6 lap lai t r a t tU phong kien d chau Au,
(3), (12), Gxvynne Lewis, The People and the
French Revolution, http://www,Warwick.acuk/fac/arts/History/teachin
g/french-rev/people,html#top
(4). National Assembly of France, The Decree Abolishing the Feudal System, August 11, •''''S9.
http://historv.hanover.edu/text£/aboIfeud,html ()(em tiep trang 47)
Xung quanh chuyen di ciia Pierre Poivre. 47 (42). Louis Malleret, Une tentative ignoree
d'etablissement francais en Indoehine au XVIIIe siecle. Les vues de I'Amiral d'Estaing Da d i n . Georges Taboulet, La geste Francaise en Indoehine... p. 146
(43). "une preuve de plus de la perspicacite de Poivre". C h a r l e s Maybon, Histoire moderne du Pays d'Annam (1592-1820)... p. 170, ndte 2
(45). Madeleine Ly-Tio-Fane, Pierre Poivre et I'expansion francaise dans ilndo-Pacifique.
BEFEO, vol 53, N° 2, 1967, pp, 453-512, Georges Taboulet, La geste Francaise en Indoehine... pp.
153-154.
(46). Milton Osborne, Southeast Asia-An Introductory History. Ninth edition, Allen&Unwin, Australia, 2004, pp, 41-43,
(47). Lduis Malleret, Une tentative ignoree d'etablissement francais en Indoehine au XVIIIe siecle. Les vues de I'Amiral d'Estaing. Da dan, p, 57,
(48), Mascareignes n a m d An De Dudng.
Madeleine Ly-Tio-Fane, Pierre Poivre et I'expansion francaise dans I'Indo Pacifique.
BEFEO, vol 53, N" 2, 1967, p, 472,
(49). poivre (m) trong tie'ng P h a p la hgt (ho) tieu (= pepper trong tieng Anh)
NEN CHUYEN CHINH DAN CHU CACH MANG JACOBIN...
(Tiep tlieo tran^ 35)
(5), (7), (8), (9), (11), (20), Luu To XUdng, Quang N h a n Hong, H a n Thiia Van, Lich sii the giai thai can dgi (1640-1900), tap 3, Nxb, T h a n h pho Ho Chi M m h , 2002, tr. 258-259, 299, 299, 300, 301-302, 309.
(6). The National Convention, Proclamation of the Convention to the Nations, December 1792, http://history.hanover.edtL/texts/natcdn, html
(10). Natidnal Assembly of France, Declaration of the Rights of Man-1789, http://avalon.law.yale .edu / 18th_century / rightsofasp
(13), French Constitution 1791, http://www,fdrd h a m . e d u / h a l s a l l / m o d / l e c t / m o d l l . h t m l
(14), (21). D a n theo D a n g T h a n h Tinh, Lich sii nUdc Phdp, Nxb. Van hoa Thong tin, T h a n h pho' Ho Chi Minh, 2006, tr, 114, 118,
(15), Uy ban cdch mgng dUdc thdnh lap a khdp cdc dia phuang, do cong xd cdc dia phuang bau ra nham tap hgp, tdchUc qudn chung nhdn ddn tham gia vdo nhUng cuoc ddu tranh chinh tri; Cdu tgc bg Jacobin vdi thdnh phdn chii ye'u ban dau gom
trung vd tieu tU sdn, ve sau thdnh phdn tham gia vd tu tudng khd phUc tgp, cd chi nhanh d hau khdp cd nUUc vdi hon 3.000 chi bg; Hiep hgi nhdn ddn Id 16 chUc gido due chinh tri do'i vdi qudn chung, Id ncti dien ra lat cd cdc cuoc thdo ludn nhUng vdn de chinh tri quan trong.
(16), Ddn theo Theda Skocpol and Meyer Kestnbaum, Mars Unshackled: The French Revdlution in World-Historical Perspective, The French Revolution and the Birth of Modernity, University of California Press, http://www,es cholarship,org/editions/view?docId=ft2h4nblh9;br and=ucpress
(17), Hippolyte A. Taine, The French Revolution, Volume 2 (of 3), eBddk, http/www.gu tenberg.drg
(18), Dad l u a t qui dinh ve viec co the bat giam va xet xii do'i vdi nhQng ngUdi bi tinh nghi bdi mot toa an dUdc t h a n h lap va xet xQ ra't n h a n h ,
(19), (22), N o r m a n Hampson, Dgi cdch mgng Phdp, Nxb. Van hoa Thdng tin. Ha Noi, 2004, tr 231.
