3.6 Education on Climate Change and Variability
3.6.2 Factors Affecting Awareness of Climate Change and Variability
There are a number of studies globally which demonstrate the status quo regarding global awareness of climate change and variability. A study in selected developed countries by Anderson (2009) on media, politics and climate change observed that the media play a major role in shaping public views and policy agendas, thanks to their ability to reach a much wider audience. Notwithstanding this fact, the study observed that media reporting on climate change and variability, are to a great extent, influenced by socio-political factors and affected by political and industry interests. The study observed a paradigm shift in the media industry in which, recently, public media have increasingly emphasised human interest, celebrities and an entertaining style of reporting which heavily discourages the reporting of so-called imaginary, complex and multi-faceted climate change issues. The study adduced the globalization of news media ownership to be a contributing factor to not creating awareness of climate change and variability.
A similar study, also in developed countries, by Boykoff (2008), assessing the role of the media in scientific communication observed that mass media such as radio, TV, newspaper and Internet play a crucial role in shaping knowledge construction and maintaining debate on climate change and variability, by acting as a link between science and policy. The study found that factors such as journalism, culture, politics, economic norms and uncertainty influence discourses and awareness of climate change and variability. Despite the role of mass media in creating awareness, the study observed that uncertainty was being propagated by contrarians who opposed climate change and variability debates for their own benefit, including economic benefit. The author noted that some people who oppose the issues related to climate change also owned and controlled the media and thus influenced people’s awareness in the direction of their preferences.
In the USA, Nisbet (2009) explored effective ways of disseminating and communicating climate change and variability information to the audience. Nisbet’s study found that, despite
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the mass media greatly ensuring that the audience received information, much of the information reached only a small proportion of the targeted audience. The study discovered that the content on issues related to climate change and variability were not well framed, resulting in low receptivity by people and influencing their level of awareness. Other barriers identified as affecting awareness on climate change and variability were the nature of the media system, which had a variety of content choices that were also complex for an ordinary person to understand.
Thus, from Nisbet’s (2009) point of view, for effective information and communication to be in place, information should be framed in the form of interpretive storylines which could be used to capture common understanding of diverse audiences. As a result peoples’ personal behaviour would be shaped for much more collective action towards sensitising people on climate change and variability. The study underscores the importance of using interpersonal sources of information, such as influential people in a society, for disseminating and communicating information as they are close to the community. The Diffusion of Innovations theoretical framework also stresses the use of social networks, including influencing people to be custodians and leaders of adoption of innovations (Rogers 2003).
In Japan, Sampei and Aoyagi-Usui (2009) studied mass-media coverage and its influence on public awareness in climate change and variability issues. Data was collected through documentary analysis for the period of January 1998 to July 2007. The study findings showed a slight increase in newspaper coverage of climate change and variability issues before January 2007 and a tremendous increase in coverage of issues related to climate change and variability from January 2007. According to the authors, the phenomenon might be influenced by the political arena in the USA, which involved international events on climate change and variability. The study stressed the use of personal communication as a sustainable strategy in raising the awareness of people.
Lorenzoni, Nicholso-Cole and Whitmarsh (2007) studied barriers perceived to hinder engaging with climate change and variability among the United Kingdom public. The study noted that, in order to develop sustainable solutions regarding peoples’ understanding of climate change and variability issues, information should be provided regularly. People’s involvement in these issues and providing more time for people to change attitudes are necessary steps to raising awareness on climate change and variability. The study categorised
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the individual’s state of knowledge on the awareness of climate change as comprised of cognitive, affective and behavioural components. Awareness in people can be achieved by sensitising people to the need to care for the environment, by motivating them to take action in adaptation plans for climate change and variability to be effective.
In Canada, McBean and Hengeveld (2000) explored the challenges of communicating the science of climate change. The study discovered a communication gap between scientists involved in climate science debates and other users of information. The study observed that lack of effective communication skills in scientists, misinformation provided by the opposition and lack of scientific knowledge by public media editors and journalists were factors contributing to the people’s confusion about, and to, impediments to information on climate change and variability access and usage. Indeed, the journalist’s state of awareness has been noted by Anderson (2009), who observed that journalists are faced with various challenges in covering news on climate change and variability, including their inadequate knowledge of climate change and variability issues and structural barriers in the media industry. The study by McBean and Hengeveld (2000) advocates the provisional access to credible and quality information which is understandable for the public community and is of paramount importance if awareness is to reach different categories of people.
In Uganda, Corner (2011) explored challenges and opportunities for communicating climate change. The study collected data through focus groups and interviews from government, private sector, media and community organisations. Key findings showed that, although many stakeholders have been involved in educating and creating awareness in people, there is still a low understanding of the term climate change by most people and only a few are knowledgeable about the term. The study found out that, although journalists are important channels for raising awareness in their audience, they experienced difficulties with their stories on climate change and variability being accepted by news editors. However, the study narrated that this phenomenon might be attributed to lack of knowledge by news editors or skepticism about information on climate change and variability. Contrary to this finding in Uganda, McBean and Hengeveld (2000) in Canada observed that editors and journalists exaggerated information in climate change and variability to capture headlines, while, in a real sense, they lacked knowledge and understanding on the issues on climate change and variability.
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Mertz, Mbow, Reenberg and Diouf’s (2008) study explored farmers’ perceptions of climate change and agricultural adaptation strategies in rural Sahel. The study collected data using a household questionnaire, focus group discussions and interviews. Study findings indicated that households were highly aware of the issue of climate change and variability. However, the study found that farmers responded differently when prompted on questions of land usage and livelihood strategies through agricultural production by associating the problems with economic, social and political events. It is thus not certain whether or not farmers were aware of climate change and variability issues.
In Zimbabwe, Mutekwa (2009) investigated climate change impacts on farmers and adaptation in the agricultural sector. They came up with interesting findings. They showed that though information and knowledge on climate change was available, agricultural extension officers and non-governmental staffs were not educating farmers on the current changing climatic conditions and what the situation is likely to be in the future. The study of Deressa, Hassan, Ringler, Alemu and Yesuf (2008) on determinants of farmers’ choice of adaptation and perceptions of climate change in the Nile basin, Ethiopia, discovered that farmers were not aware of the potential adaptation options and methods on climate change and variability. In order to sensitise people, the study emphasised the use of informal social networks to facilitate information access, sharing and use. Farmers should be exposed to the observable examples of other farmers who had utilised the improved new crop varieties, so as to be motivated. More research on the use of crop varieties and livestock species which suit drier, arid and semi-arid conditions should be advocated to promote farmer awareness. The study suggested investing in technological packages which increase farm income, facilitating access to credit, irrigation and creating an enabling environment for off-farm employment.
Jonge (2010) researched farmers’ perceptions of adaptation to climate change in the state of South Australia. The study used phone interviews and workshops in data collection. The study found that farmers were aware of climate change and variability. Farmers, however lacked knowledge on climate change and variability as they associated the phenomenon with natural climatic variability and did not view it as human-induced. The study further observed that age, educational level and location tend to influence perceptions of climate change and variability. In this regard, notwithstanding the efforts to create awareness in people by stakeholders involved in information dissemination and communication, much has still to be done. Gwimbi (2009), Mutekwa (2009), McBean and Hengeveld (2000) have shown that
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much of information on climate change and variability is at the higher levels, such as national and regional levels of decision-makers. In most African countries the information users, who are the basic targets for scientific research and discourses on climate change and variability, have not reaped the expected benefits (Tarhule 2007). Information needs to be spread to farmers in an understandable manner, to assist them in farm level decision-making.
Kadi, Njau, Mwikya and Kamga (2011) studied the state of climate information services for agriculture and food security in East African countries. The study used questionnaires, interviews, field visits, discussions and websites for data collection. The study observed that there is increased awareness on climate change and variability and that there is a call for adaptation in the East African regions. The study observed that half of the farmers in these East African countries have not been exposed to research and extension services. Laizer (1999) confirms farmers’ difficulties in accessing agricultural information and found that only a small amount of information on various innovations is known by the majority of smallholder farmers. Similar findings by Mowo, Tanui, Masuki, Lyamchai and Adimassu (2011) were that, despite the availability of extensive information and experience from integrated natural resource management research this information could not reach potential users, as a result of its improper presentation. These authors learned that, even with their availability, these services in most cases do not encompass the effective needs of farmers.
The study further observed that, despite farmers’ awareness, effective adaptation strategies can be enhanced through assessing farmers’ capacity to express their agricultural needs, create partnerships between information service providers and farmers and build capacity in service providers to enable them to respond to expressed needs.
Thus, from the literature reviewed, and in spite of the significant contribution of stakeholders involved in disseminating information on climate change and variability, it is still uncertain whether or not people are aware of climate change and variability. Orindi and Murray (2005) observed that awareness of climate change and variability in East Africa was low, as people saw it as a distant and not immediate problem affecting their socio-economic activities. The reviewed literature from several case studies globally, but mostly from Africa, have shown that farmers are aware of climate change and variability in their localities. It is not clear if they are adapting as a result of awareness received from sources of information or if they are practicing what they know from indigenous knowledge.
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