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managing farm activities. The study revealed that farmers’ dependability on IK in seasonal forecast predictions was fading as a result of its loss of accuracy.
Some studies show that IK is threatened with disappearing in the long term in society, as there is limited transfer from generation to generation (Speranza et al. 2010). This finding, according to Ingram, Roncoli and Kirshen (2002), might contribute to farmers’ perceptions of the lack of dependability of the local indicators used in predicting the season. Speranza et al.
(2010) suggested that the way to ensure IK preservation and use is to incorporate it in the education curriculum and link it with formal climate change and variability research through participation of the local people.
Timely access to information plays a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change and variability. Findings could not, however ascertain the level to which innovative scientific information on adaptation has been packaged and disseminated. It was not clear from the literature how information flows from higher levels, represented by scientists and decision-makers to the end-users of information for decision-making.
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strategies. The findings of the study raise concerns about the issues of inadequate information dissemination, which influences access to, and use of, innovations. If information was effectively disseminated, then farmers would have applied the innovation such as changing of planting date and crop diversification strategies efficiently.
Mengistu’s (2011) study showed that farmers had accumulated vast IK on weather forecasting. Farmers used signs and signals, cultural beliefs and environment predictors to foresee the coming season’s weather and climatic conditions. The cultural environmental indicators included the colour of the sky, the colour of the clouds and the wind directions.
They use this to predict whether the coming season will be wet or dry. For example, a reddish sky colour, sparse clouds in the sky and wind blowing from west to east predict the dryness of the coming season.
The most common environmental indicators used for assessment by Adiha farmers in Ethiopia were closely observing animal behaviour, such as that of goats and insects such as bees. The study indicated that a particular sound produced by honey bees was a special sign predicting the instantaneous rainfall. In addition, existing coping strategies used by farmers in Adiha were the food for work scheme, credit, small businesses (charcoal and firewood selling), reduction of the size of the daily meal and migration. Apata, Samuel and Adeola, (2009) investigated farmers’ climate change perceptions and adaptation among arable food crops in south-western Nigeria. They discovered that most farmers had diversified their economic practices and are gradually moving from farming to non-farm activities.
A study in Ethiopia by Deressa et al. (2008) analysed the determinants of farmers’ choice of adaptation methods and perceptions of climate change in the Nile basin. Many farmers were not aware of adaptation options even though some were practising adaptation of agricultural practices, such as the use of different varieties of crops, tree planting, soil conservation, changing planting dates and applying irrigation. The study highlighted a critical issue arising in most climate change and variability research, which is, whether the farmers’ responses are stimulated by the economic quest for farmers to improve their agricultural production or the reaction to information disseminated to them by various sources.
Hisali, Birungi and Buyinza (2011) researched farmers’ adaptation to climate change in Uganda by analysing micro level data. The study used documentary analysis by assessing a national household survey for 2005/2006. The key findings revealed that households in
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Uganda responded to climate-related shocks by reducing consumption, using their past savings, using technology and borrowing. The authors observed that these choices were influenced by land tenure security, access to off-farm employment, extension and credit access and agro-ecological zone. Whereas, in Zimbabwe, Gwimbi (2009) found that, despite farmers’ preference for irrigation and short-term hybrid cotton varieties in enhancing agricultural production, the study revealed that farmers lacked knowledge on how to apply such adaptation strategies. Mensah-Fosu, Vleckand Manschadi (2010), who researched farmers’ perceptions of adaptation to climate change in the Sekyedumase district, Ghana, learned that, although the majority of farmers perceived a change in climatic conditions, only a few of them had knowledge on adaptation strategies to apply in their farming practices. The study noted that most farmers applied two adaptation measures which included crop diversification and change of planting dates during warmer weather conditions.
In Senegal, Mertz, Mbow, Reenberg and Diouf (2008) explored farmers’ perceptions of climate change and Agricultural adaptation strategies in rural Sahel. They found that farmers have knowledge of climate change and variability and apply adaption measures such as shifting to new crop varieties, keeping animals, replacing horses with cattle and using manure in farming. The study did not directly identify all the above-mentioned climate change and variability adaptation measures, although introducing new crops was practised by farmers to boost their incomes.
Jonge (2010) researched irrigation farmers’ perceptions of adaptation to climate change in Riverland, South Australia, and found that they adapted to drought by purchasing extra water rights or improving irrigation efficiency. Farmers’ perceptions on climate change and variability risks and lack of knowledge on water availability, future climatic conditions and adaptations options, tended to limit farmers’ adaptation capabilities in Riverland. Adger, Arnell and Tompkins (2005), in their study on successful adaptation to climate change across scales, observed that farmers’ perceptions of climate change and variability risks greatly influence adaptation.
Barbier et al. (2009) studied farmers’ adaptation strategies in northern Burkina Faso. They discovered that farmers had changed their farming practices during the last decade. They had adopted a wide range of techniques to increase crop production. The techniques farmers have adapted include micro water harvesting, use of soil conservation practices such as stone lines,
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storage of hay and sorghum residues and growing dry season vegetables. The findings indicated that farmers are now shifting from dependency on rain-fed agriculture to irrigation schemes. The study revealed that the use of improved seeds was not very popular among farmers. This could be attributed to lack of knowledge rather than a lack of interest as the majority of farmers showed interest in this innovation.
In South Africa, Nhemachena and Hassan (2007) carried out a micro-level analysis of farmers’ adaptation. They discovered that farmers’ most important adaptation options included crop diversification, using different crop varieties, changing planting and harvesting dates, increasing the use of irrigation, increasing the use of water and soil conservation techniques, and diversifying from farm to non-farm activities. In addition to those adaptation options, knowledge of crop diversification was found to be a critical component contributing to improving household food security, as was also observed by Mutekwa (2009). Crop diversification was deemed an essential adaptation strategy towards enhancing food security for farmers. Crop diversification distributes risk as crops are affected differently by the same climatic conditions. Also, given the high frequency of mid-season dry spells and shortening of the rain season, farmers have adapted to climate change by growing short-season and drought-resistant crop varieties, such as sorghum, rapoko (millet) and finger millet. Notably, the study revealed that farmers have changed their farming attitudes by growing staple food such as maize. Where this is evident, there has been a shift from planting local varieties planting hybrid maize. This variety takes a shorter period to mature and yields more than traditional varieties.
Coles and Scott’s (2009) study in the USA found that climate changes and Variability has added more water pumping costs for farmers. As an adaptation strategy, farmers have been forced to incur more cost for underground water pumping for irrigation. The study revealed that ranchers were practising rotational grazing as an adaptation strategy for pasture management. Despite farmers having farming as their primary occupation, most of them had a supplementary off-farm income generating activity, this boosted their income during poor agricultural production seasons. Subsidies from the government reduced vulnerability of farmers. In India, a study by Dhaka, Chayal and Poonia (2010), showed that most farmers were adapting to climate change and variability by practicing integrated farming system methods such as crop rotation, intercropping and agroforestry. Their study indicated other adaptation strategies, including change in the time of farm operations, soil conservation
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techniques, use of short-duration crop varieties, use of water conservation techniques and stubble mulching.
In Tanzania, studies have shown that rural communities have adapted various strategies to cope with weather changes. Mongi, Majule and Lyimo (2010) found that farmers in Tabora region have locally adapted to the impact of climate change and variability. The local adaptation is through expanding cultivation areas to compensate for reduced yields during droughts, reducing fallows, switching to more drought-resistant crops, such as cassava and sorghum, and diversifying their crops. The study found that farmers have adapted locally by practising off-farm activities such as charcoal-making, brick production and casual carpentry.
Yanda and William (2010) observed that the majority of rural people adapt locally by engaging in other off-farm economic activities such as selling charcoal, establishing restaurants (viosk) and utilising non-wood forest products. Therefore, in order to enhance farmers’ adaptation capacity, the study by Mongi, Majule and Lyimo (2010) stressed the combination of local knowledge of farming with the new measures introduced.
Lyimo and Kangalawe (2010), in the Shinyanga region of Tanzania, found that the most common local farming methods included growing drought-tolerant crops, buying fast- maturing crops, buying supplementary foods and cultivating the wetlands. In spite of the fact that farmers were adapting, the study revealed that these adaptation strategies were heavily influenced by their wealth status, which enhanced their adaptive capacities. Some of the adaptation strategies identified by the study were farmers engaging in non-farm activities such as selling charcoal, establishing shops, selling their labour, selling beer and migration to other areas to make their living. Notably, the study underscores the fact that although the above adaptation strategies exist, there were farmers who were extremely vulnerable, as they could not engage in these adaptation approaches due to inadequate finance.
Lema and Majule (2009), in the Singida region of Tanzania, had similar findings to those in the Tabora region. They found that farmers were adapting locally by applying soil fertility improvement strategies and timing farming activities such as early preparation of land for planting, burying crop residues to enhance soil fertility and burning crop residues, to speed up the nutrients spread on the soil for easy absorption. The study also observed that farmers possess knowledge of soil tillage practices, such as selecting certain types of crops to be planted on a certain soil. Farmers knew how to use contour points to ensure the efficient use
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of rain water through infiltration, by reducing surface runoff. Other IK used by farmers includes staggered crop planting and mixed cropping. These methods were preferred, as they were effective in spreading crop risks and ensuring the efficient use of rainfall. The study learned that farmers were controlling crop pests such as stalk borer and easing cultivation by burning crop residues.
Slegers (2008), in the Dodoma region showed, that farmers had knowledge factors that contributed to the decrease in rainfall and suspected deforestation as the cause. Slegers found that farmers were aware that soil characteristics influenced plants’ ability to survive in dry conditions. The study also found that adaptation strategies used by farmers to respond to climate change and variability included livelihood diversification, such as keeping livestock, selling labour, selling commodities at seasonally high prices, borrowing and mixing market and subsistence crops. The study noted that food security can be ensured through means such as food preservation, effective and efficient access to, and use of, weather forecasts and keeping livestock. Other agronomic strategies such as timely cultivation, ridge cultivation, mixed cropping, sowing before onset of rains, rotating tillage, using drought-resistant crops and preparing for a dry year should also be advocated for farmers to effectively adapt to climate change and variability.
The reviewed literature showed that most farmers had the knowledge to adapt and implement various strategies to mitigate the effects of climate change and variability. However, it is not clear how farmers have acquired their knowledge, whether they are applying their IK, or have adopted scientific information prepared and spread by information disseminators.