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of rain water through infiltration, by reducing surface runoff. Other IK used by farmers includes staggered crop planting and mixed cropping. These methods were preferred, as they were effective in spreading crop risks and ensuring the efficient use of rainfall. The study learned that farmers were controlling crop pests such as stalk borer and easing cultivation by burning crop residues.
Slegers (2008), in the Dodoma region showed, that farmers had knowledge factors that contributed to the decrease in rainfall and suspected deforestation as the cause. Slegers found that farmers were aware that soil characteristics influenced plants’ ability to survive in dry conditions. The study also found that adaptation strategies used by farmers to respond to climate change and variability included livelihood diversification, such as keeping livestock, selling labour, selling commodities at seasonally high prices, borrowing and mixing market and subsistence crops. The study noted that food security can be ensured through means such as food preservation, effective and efficient access to, and use of, weather forecasts and keeping livestock. Other agronomic strategies such as timely cultivation, ridge cultivation, mixed cropping, sowing before onset of rains, rotating tillage, using drought-resistant crops and preparing for a dry year should also be advocated for farmers to effectively adapt to climate change and variability.
The reviewed literature showed that most farmers had the knowledge to adapt and implement various strategies to mitigate the effects of climate change and variability. However, it is not clear how farmers have acquired their knowledge, whether they are applying their IK, or have adopted scientific information prepared and spread by information disseminators.
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change in the timing of rains and frequent droughts. Similarly, in Ethiopia, Deressa et al.
(2008) revealed that farmers were aware that there was an increase in temperature and a decrease in the amount of precipitation. Their study showed that farmers’ perceptions were influenced by the age of the household head, information acquired on climate change and variability, wealth and social capital.
In Zimbabwe, Gwimbi (2009) assessed cotton farmers’ vulnerability to climate change in Gokwe district. A survey indicated that farmers perceived an increase in temperature and drought and a decrease in precipitation. These perceptions conformed to the study’s analysis of climatic data records from meteorological stations for the last decade. The climatic data records showed that in the Gokwe district there had been an increase in temperature and a decline in rainfall. However, farmers’ perceptions of whether the climate was changing or not was highly influenced by their experience of the incidence of drought and changes in the seasonal timing of rainfall and floods. Maddison’s (2007) study on perception and adaptation to climate change and variability in Africa found that experienced farmers were more likely to observe changes in climatic conditions.
In Ghana, Mensah-Fosu, Vleck and Manschadi (2010) assessed farmer’s perceptions and adaptation to climate change in the Sekyedumase district. The study found that the majority of farmers perceived a long-term change in temperature and precipitation. Farmers had noticed an increase in temperature and a decrease in precipitation. Most farmers associated the rise in temperature and decrease in precipitation in the area with deforestation and bush burning. In this study, authors verified the farmers’ perceptions of an increase of temperature by analysing historical mean temperatures for the last thirty-six years. They observed that there was a slight increase of temperature in the past decade.
Mertz, Mbow, Reenberg and Diouf (2009) studied the perceptions of farmers’ perceptions of climate change and Agricultural adaptation strategies in rural Sahel. They found that farmers had perceived climate change and variability in their area. Farmers pointed out that they had in recent years, observed stronger winds in the dry season and an increase in rainfall as a result of deforestation and land mismanagement. The study also found that there had been a reduction in yields of wild plant species as a consequence of extreme weather events. Similar findings were made in North Africa in Burkina Faso by Barbier et al. (2009). This study revealed that farmers in the last decade had observed a change in weather pattern, with
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increased intensity of rainfall and floods. Despite farmers practising adaptation measures in their daily farming activities they could not clearly associate their perception of climate change and variability with these practices. In Southern Africa, Nhemachena and Hassan (2007) carried out a micro-level analysis of farmers’ adaptation in South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. They found that nearly half of the farmers had perceived an increase in temperature and a decrease in precipitation.
In the USA, Coles and Scott (2009) studied vulnerability and adaptation to climate change and variability in the state of Arizona. They interviewed agricultural producers and agricultural extension officers in the counties of Pima and Cochise and had interesting findings. Contrary to the findings in many developing countries, in the USA it was shown that, although farmers could observe climate change and variability in their agricultural production, they did not perceive the changes to be significant. This is due to the well- structured agricultural infrastructure and assistance from the government. Coles and Scott (2009) indicated that farmers in Arizona have extremely high access to information, assistance programmes and financial support.
Coles and Scott (2009) further stated that drought and frost were the most critical climate risks which affected farmers. Changes of weather have caused changes in rainfall and frost and thus affected crop planting and harvesting for farmers. Despite the prevalence of climatic risks as a result of climate change and variability, ranchers were significantly affected by drought which adversely affected their pastures. This was obvious as ranchers solely depended on rainfall for pasture growth. The study observed that farmers did not perceive drought as a problem, because they were not solely dependent on rainfall, as they used groundwater for irrigation.
Dhaka, Chayal and Poonia (2010) studied farmers’ perceptions and adaptation strategies to climate change in India. They used structured interviews to collect data from 500 farmers.
The study revealed that it was perceived that temperature had increased and precipitation had declined. Farmers perceived an increase in long dry spells, late rainfall commencement and the early end of the monsoon. The study noted that factors such as farming experience, age, innovativeness, exposure to media and environmental consciousness had a positive and significant association with farmers’ perceptions to climate change and variability.
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In Tanzania, a number of studies on adaptation to climate change and variability have been done in the central regions and other agricultural production zones. These include those by Mongi, Majule and Lyimo (2010) in the Tabora region, Lyimo and Kangalawe in the Shinyanga region (2010) and Lema and Majule (2009) in the Singida region and Slegers (2008) in Dodoma region. Mongi, Majule and Lyimo (2010) studied the vulnerability of rain- fed agriculture to climate change and variability in semi-arid Tanzania. The study used structured interviews, focus group discussions, field observations and documentary reviews to collect data. The study indicated that most farmers perceived that rainfall was declining and temperature had been increasing in the area and that climate change and variability was the cause. However, the study found that a small number of farmers perceived the rainfall decline as being caused by not following the traditional foundations set by their forefathers.
These findings show that cultural beliefs played a significant role in shaping behaviour of many people in rural areas. The findings showed that rain-fed agriculture was at risk due to changes in the growing season, an increase in heat stress and moisture and an increase in insects and pests.
Lyimo and Kangalawe (2010) assessed vulnerability and adaptive strategies to the impact of climate change and variability in semi-arid Shinyanga region. Data was collected through focus group discussions, key informants interviews and structured household questionnaire interviews. The findings indicated that local communities perceive climate change and variability through observations of decreases in rainfall, erratic rainfall patterns and increases in temperature and drought. The study observed that in the region, food insecurity had increased as a result of a decrease in crop production, resulting in the region being named as a food deficit area in Tanzania.
Lema and Majule (2009) explored the impacts of climate change variability and adaptation strategies on agriculture in semi-arid areas of Tanzania. The study employed focus group discussions and structured interviews in data collection. The findings indicated that in the Manyoni district local people perceived changes in rainfall and temperature, where rainfall was decreasing and temperature was increasing. The study found that crop production was reduced due to factors such as unpredictable rainfall, an increase in pests and diseases and a decline in soil fertility as a result of frequent drought. The study observed that the changes have seriously affected livelihoods by contributing to food insecurity through loss from crops and livestock.
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Slegers (2008) explored farmers’ perceptions of drought in Tanzania in the Kondoa, Dodoma, region. The study employed in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, questionnaires and field visits in collecting data. The findings indicated that dwellers perceived rainfall as being unreliable and an increased occurrence of drought over the past 10 to 20 years. The study showed a similar trend as other research studies conducted on semi-arid revealing erratic rainfall. Farmers were more concerned about the increased severity of drought than the increased frequency of droughts. Concurrently, the study analysed rainfall data for a period of 37 years and observed a similar pattern to that perceived by farmers relating to changes in rainfall.
Generally, findings from the literature showed that farmers have perceived climatic changes with more unpredictable rainfall patterns, drastic changes in temperature, increased pests and diseases and a decrease in soil nutrients.
3.12 Factors Affecting Access to, and Use of, Information on Adaptation to Climate