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In Burkina Faso, Ingram, Roncoli and Kirshen (2002) noted the role of information in enhancing crop diversification and water preservation and harvesting. The study used a variety of data collection methods such as open-ended and in-depth interviews, focus group discussions and observation. The authors stressed the need for timely information on climate change and variability, such as seasonal forecast information, which will make farmers aware of the coming season and enhance their adaptive capacity through choice of what and when to cultivate, so as to minimise the adverse effects of climate change and variability. It will also help farmers to preserve water in advance if they are aware of the next season’s climate changes.
In Zimbabwe, Gwimbi (2009) found that most farmers lacked access to timely weather forecasts and climate change and variability information, which was a pre-requisite in motivating them in adoption. The study gathered data from databases and conducted a time series analysis for a period of 30 years through using interviews. The author points out that although there is much information on climate change and variability at regional and national levels, this information was not accessed and used effectively by potential end-users due to poor interpretation of its relevancy. Gwimbi (2009) calls for well-prepared information on climate change and variability with content that ensures its practical value for farmers.
Mutekwa (2009) in Zimbabwe analysed the impacts of climate change and adaptation among smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe and observed that despite availability of information at regional, continental and global levels, most farmers still have inadequate awareness and knowledge of climate change and variability impacts and adaptation strategies. The study reiterates that for mitigation and adaptation strategies on climate change and variability to succeed, information on climate change and variability cannot be ignored.
Hisali, Birungi and Buyinza (2011), who researched farmers’ adaptation to climate change in Uganda by analysing micro level data, found that information is among the essential factors which influence adaptation by farmers in Uganda. Effective adaptation should avail farmers of information on innovations such as pest resistant varieties and weather forecasts. Marx, Weber, Orlove, Leiserowitz, Krantz, Roncoli and Phillips (2007), Phillips and Orlove (2004) and Roncoli, Orlove, Kabugo and Waiswa (2011) also observed that in Uganda farmers’
awareness and knowledge of scientific climate forecast information enhanced their participation in adaptation to climate change and variability.
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In Nigeria, Apata, Samuel and Adenola (2009) recorded that effective and reliable access to information on climate change and variability was a critical factor in adaptation. They stressed that access to credit or grant facilities was crucial for helping farmers to acquire reliable information to make correct decisions in agricultural production. According to these authors, having reliable information through access to extension and credit will assist farmers in making relevant adaptation decisions.
It was found that even though climate forecast information is made available and disseminated in most African countries at the onset of the rainy season (Patt,Ogallo and Hellmuth 2008), the utilisation of this information for risk management in agriculture is being hindered by many factors. This includes the lack of correspondence of forecast parameters with farmers information needs, availability of resources needed for farming management options and the process whereby information is being packaged and disseminated to farmers after being translated (Roncoli 2006). Mutekwa (2009) revealed the remarkable findings that all of the farmers interviewed professed ignorance of the seasonal climate forecast information. They did not use this information to make decisions on farming which would have reduced the climate change and variability risks.
3.9.1 Role of Indigenous Knowledge in Mitigation and Adaptation
Many scholars have argued about the contribution of IK to adaptation to climate change and variability. Orindi and Murray (2005) crucially observed that it is essential to understand, document and strengthen existing livelihood coping strategies rather than imposing new, high-tech solutions which do not fit well with levels of understanding of many farmers in most developing countries. Salinger, Sivakumar and Motha (2005) point out that the best way to ensure that farming practices are adopted by farmers is to assess the existing indigenous technologies, traditional knowledge and local innovations used in farming systems.
Researchers had not previously given much attention to the wealth of information preserved by people in the form of IK. The main reason given by Green and Raygorodetsky (2010) is that researchers perceived local IK to be inferior to scientific knowledge. This perception dominated public and policy debates. Many scholars have investigated the nature of IK, after it was mentioned in the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) of 2007.
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There are a number of authors who have shown the value of IK in adaptation to climate change and variability. Hisali, Birungi and Buyinza (2011), in their study of farmers’
adaptation to climate change in Uganda, observed a notable difference in the choice of adaptation strategies by farmers and stressed that for adaptation strategies to receive attention, farmers’ IK should not be ignored. Green and Raygorodetsky (2010), who researched IK in a changing climate, stressed that mitigation and adaptation strategies can only be effective by incorporating peoples’ IK and scientific knowledge.
Speranza et al. (2010) investigated farmers’ IK related to climate change and variability in semi-arid areas in Kenya and found out that farmers possess IK on indicators of rainfall variability. The study deduced that farmers believed and relied on IK’s efficacy as the basic knowledge frame within which they interpreted meteorological forecasts and made decisions in ying out agricultural practices. The study found that, although farmers possessed IK to predict of climate change and variability, they were not applying this knowledge to change their farming norms. Factors mentioned as influencing their use of IK was poverty, inadequate resources, high rainfall variability and lack of preparedness. Even though farmers knew through IK indicators that they were exposed to risks of climate change and variability, they could not respond/adapt to the impact when it occurred, due to these limiting factors.
In Tanzania, Chang’a, Yanda and Ngana (2010), Tumbo, Mbilinyi, Rwehumbiza and Mutabazi (2010) and Kangalawe, Mwakalila and Masolwa (2011) studied farmers’ use of IK in adaptation to climate change and variability. These studies mostly applied qualitative rather than quantitative methods such as structured interviews, semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions to collect data from farmers. Key findings showed that farmers use plant phenology, animals, birds, insects and astronomical indicators to predict weather and climate.
3.9.2 Impact of Climate Change and Variability on the Existence of IK
In Tanzania, Slegers’ (2008) study indicated that farmers used IK to understand the coming season. They predicted weather through observing signs in natural phenomena such as trees and stars. These beliefs about indicators of rainfall are seen to originate from the hands of God. The study found however that recently there has been a paradigm shift from the use of IK in interpreting seasonal forecasts to more reliance on extension officers and the radio for
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managing farm activities. The study revealed that farmers’ dependability on IK in seasonal forecast predictions was fading as a result of its loss of accuracy.
Some studies show that IK is threatened with disappearing in the long term in society, as there is limited transfer from generation to generation (Speranza et al. 2010). This finding, according to Ingram, Roncoli and Kirshen (2002), might contribute to farmers’ perceptions of the lack of dependability of the local indicators used in predicting the season. Speranza et al.
(2010) suggested that the way to ensure IK preservation and use is to incorporate it in the education curriculum and link it with formal climate change and variability research through participation of the local people.
Timely access to information plays a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change and variability. Findings could not, however ascertain the level to which innovative scientific information on adaptation has been packaged and disseminated. It was not clear from the literature how information flows from higher levels, represented by scientists and decision-makers to the end-users of information for decision-making.