LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CHAPTER 5: URBANISATION, SLUMS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
5.1 Introduction
Developing Countries in general and Africa in particular have been experiencing rapid urbanisation. Indeed, the urban population of developing countries is growing faster than the rural population. In South Africa for example, the Department of Housing (1997) through the Urban Development Framework estimated that more than half of the population live in urban areas.
UNCHS (1996) recognises the importance to protect 'city life' when argued that: "Cities and towns have been engines of growth and incubators of civilization and have facilitated the evolution of knowledge, culture and tradition as well as industry and commerce. Urban settlements, properly planned and managed, hold the promise for human development and the protection of the world's natural resources through their ability to support large number of people while limiting their impact on the natural environment" (Department of Housing, 1997). UNCHS (1996) and UN Habitat (2006/2007) have established a direct link between urbanisation and sustainability and have urged governments, especially in developing countries to plan for urban development. Bromley (2005: 1) argues that
"the Millennium Development Goals commit the international community to an expanded vision of development, one that vigorously promotes human development as the key to sustaining social and economic progress in all the countries, and recognizes the importance of creating a global partnership for development."
Elaborating on the issue of urbanisation, UN Habitat (2006/2007) revealed that in the year 2007 human beings would either move to a city or be born in one. And the biggest cities or 'Mega cities' with more than 20 million people will be found in the developing world. Undoubtedly, it appears that the failure to deal properly with the issue of urbanisation will result in an urban crisis, which can be perceived in environmental deterioration, food shortage, housing crisis and the inadequacy to deliver services such as water, electricity and health care.
The growing number of slums, which was the concern of UN - Habitat (2003) and also UN Habitat (2006/2007), shows that there has been an absence of forward planning to deal with the rapid urbanisation facing underdeveloped countries. Therefore, they are failing to adequately respond to the issues brought by rapid urbanisation such as to find affordable urban land, design affordable housing and supply food and health care for the poor. As a result, it is seriously affecting the quality of urban life and reducing the possibility for the urban poor to improve their lives.
The rapid increase in the urban population logically increases the demand for land, housing, water, electricity, health care, jobs and education. With regard to housing for example, in South Africa, Lindiwe Sisulu, the Minister of Housing stated, "rapid urbanisation is causing the demand for housing to grow faster than the Government can deliver it" (Mail & Guardian, 14 October 2006). While the South African government reacts to the housing needs of the urban poor by the provision of state subsidised housing, Bromley (2005) emphasised the need to create jobs at the centre to facilitate housing in urban areas. According to him, if urban areas offer plausible and expanding employment opportunities, then post Apartheid urban immigrants will have the means to accumulate income with which to improve their existing houses or to acquire improved housing.
Adequate responses to rapid urbanisation means, to take into account the importance of the environment, which according to Eisner, et al (1992), responds to the needs of the people living in urban areas, especially the urban poor. In other words, to ensure sustainability, urban development must seek to improve the welfare of urban residents and the preservation of the environment. The writer perceives that slums, urbanisation and sustainable development are mutually interconnected issues. The response of one lies in other. Apparently, slums are the outcome of rapid urbanisation and sustainable development is a combined response to both the issues.
Sustainability in itself is a broad issue that embraces ecological, social, development, and institutional and geographical aspects. The most commonly cited definition of 'sustainable development' has been drawn from the Brundtland report, over a decade ago (WeED, 1987). It is a broad concern and valid starting point, that actions taken today should not compromise the interests of future generations. However, it is such a broad definition that the term sustainable development is often understood as meaning different things to different interest groups that use it. The phrase 'sustainable development' is in itself a paradox. It appears to put together two irreconcilable
principles, that of environmental sustainability and economic development.
Literally, sustainable development refers to maintaining quality development over time.
There are contentions and confusions over what 'development' is, how it should be achieved and what should be 'sustained' by sustainable development. Although, there is little refutation about different strands of sustainability to be considered, such as ecological sustainability, social sustainability, economic sustainability and cultural sustainability, disagreements about the relationships between these different dimensions of sustainability and sustainable development proliferate. For instance, some may argue that social sustainability, i.e. maintaining existing social norms and introducing changes within social limits is a social constraint on development and therefore is a core element of sustainable development (Munro, 1995). Others may define social sustainability, as the social conditions necessary to support environmental sustainability, which is the heart of sustainable development, and therefore all social development goals should be considered within the limits of environmental capital (Mitlin & Satterthwaite, 1996).
Yet, it is rarely operationalised as a single coherent ideology (Adams, 1990). The concept lacks clear definition and, as such, is multifaceted, multidimensional and highly contested (Redclift, 1992). Many international agencies, governments, multinational corporations, and so on, subscribe to the Brundtland Commission's definition as outlined in the report Our Common Future. Referring to Eisner et ai's (1992) plan to protect the physical environment, sustainable development may be firstly seen as a development that does not intend to exploit the resources to the end that it destroys them. Secondly, sustainable development should not interfere with nature and finally, sustainable development ought to seek the preservation of the diversity of life, as we depend on it for our food and existence.
Mainstream hegemonic discourses of sustainable development tend to follow from the definition that includes basic needs, eco-development and sustainable use of resources (0' Riordan, 1988; Lele, 1991). However, the Brundtlandt Report (1987) definition has led to a much-heated discussion and is often interpreted with considerable variety, to suit specific purposes. Sustainable development has been chastised for being a 'cliche'; 'terribly versatile'; 'a truism'; and 'beguiling in simplicity' (Red clift, 1987; 0' Riordan, 1988; Adams, 1990; Holmberg & Sandbrook, 1992). It is an array of differing interpretations for the support of various interested parties (Blowers &
Glasbergen, 1995). Sustainability is a far more complex concept than the mainstream
interpretations of sustainable development. It addresses additional ethical features, such as the appropriate management of nature, reflecting on the more traditional concerns of environmentalism (Adams, 1995). In its strongest sense, sustainability, as
0' Riordan (1981) suggests, can be a highly bio-centric and ethical endeavour. Indeed,
a continuum of environmental concern exists, which encompass both techno-centrism and eco-centrism.
It is difficult not to be in favour of sustainable development, as it seems to hold out the hope of development with at least no further environmental degradation and an improved quality of life (Atkinson et ai, 1997). It offers to bridge the gap between economic growth and environmental preservation, without significant changes to the capitalist market system (Escobar, 1996). Whatever the definitions and understanding of sustainable development are, the concept provides a post Apartheid perspective or paradigm to interpret and possibly to steer social change. Housing is a basic component of the built environment and social development. Examining its development in this post Apartheid perspective would help understand, whether changes or developments of a society are achieving the tenets of sustainable development, howsoever one defines it.
The World Conservation Strategy (1980), the Brundlandt Report (1987), and the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), amongst others, were instrumental in shaping the concept and principles of sustainable development.
Since the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, several international events have taken place, where sustainable development thinking and principles have featured prominently and have influenced outcomes and recommendations. Internationally, neo-liberal policies have led to an increasingly market based and inter-dependent global economy, which has been associated with rising global poverty and inequality, and growing environmental degradation. Strong sustainability calls for a re-conceptualisation of the relationship between people and the environment, both at the global and local level and for a post Apartheid way of thinking about economic growth and development (Bond, 2002). The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg in 2002 reaffirmed international and local commitment to sustainable development and Agenda 21, the long-term action plan for sustainable development that emanated from the Rio Earth Summit.
This chapter will explore the process of urbanisation in developing countries in general and particularly in South Africa on one hand and sustainable development in terms of
built environment, construction, social, cultural, construction and technology recycling waste management on the other. The focus will be on housing, which is one of the crucial issues created by rapid urbanisation and will examine whether the approach adopted by underdeveloped countries to solve housing issues responds to the criteria of sustainable development.