Urbanisation and sustainability

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CHAPTER 5: URBANISATION, SLUMS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

5.6 Urbanisation and sustainability

Another important aspect to achieve sustainable development is the preservation of the diversity of cultures. Culture refers to the experience of people and allows understanding of people's activities. It is the way people think, perceive and approach realities. Modernisation Theory, which aims to destroy 'traditional culture' and to privilege 'modern culture', seems to be contrary to sustainable development. Referring to housing, Spiegel et al (1996) stresses the role of diversity in housing delivery, which must conform to the diversity of cultures. In this sense, low-cost housing in South Africa is unsustainable since it ignores the needs of migrants who are temporary residents, and only focus on the needs of permanent residents.

Besides the aspects analysed above, to deal with rapid urbanisation in a sustainable manner, this thesis emphasises the role of the spatial form in achieving sustainable development. It also argues that low-cost or subsidised housing in South Africa lacks the importance of place and the pleasant neighbourhood in the improvement of living conditions of the poor households'. The debate below will focus on urbanisation and sustainability in general and South Africa in particular.

capacity of institutions, to formulate effective policies, which positively impact on the living conditions of the urban poor or promote sustainable development. The preservation of our environment or 'living space' emerges as a concern of urban development as well.

Some of the key issues pertinent to improve sustainability of urban environment are land-use patterns, traffic and transportation and environmental pollution. With the rapid growth of cities, problems of congestion and sprawl intensify. Failure to develop strategic objectives and infrastructure investment policies up to the standards of metropolitan area results in inadequate patterns of land use. Good location of housing in general and low-cost housing in particular and the form that a city may take playa determinant role in improving urban sustainability. In fact, good location of housing facilitates traffic and transportation systems as people do not travel long distance to work and in turn they could save money budgeted for transport for other expenses such as education, health, and food. Besides, it is widely believed by its proponents that compact city rationally utilises land and with its high residential and employment densities, it matches urban sustainability and reduces environmental pollution (Todes, 2003; Neuman, 2005; Holden & Norland, 2005).

In developing countries, the most common means of motorised travel are buses and minibuses operating as taxis. With road improvement, urban development spreads along major routes, causing suburban sprawl, inefficient use of land and resources, and environmental pollution (Rogers & Power, 2000). In South Africa low-cost housing is developed in sprawl form or in the periphery of cities and towns, thus making the cost of maintenance and management higher (Department of housing, 2004), it is believed that compact cities may offer opportunities to poor people to improve their living conditions (Todes, 2003).

Environmental pollution dominated the proceedings of the 1972 Stockholm Conference. It became clear that the interests of developing countries were incompatible with those of developed countries. The Brandt Commission was primarily concerned with development. In the introduction of 1983 report, Willy Brandt warned that deteriorating economic conditions can threaten the political stability of developing countries and that further decline is likely to cause the disintegration of societies and will create conditions of anarchy in many parts of the world (Brandt Commission, 1983).

The World Commission on Environment and Development attempted to reconcile environmental and development objectives (WCED, 1987). The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro focused on comprehensive environmental controls. Despite

international recognition of deteriorating environmental conditions, and eight UN and four European sponsored conferences on the global environment since 1972, there is no agreement on an universal policy.

Industrialisation and the spread of informal settlements with inadequate sanitation systems have contributed to increase in water pollution, affecting those dependent on surface or ground sources of water supply and downstream communities (WHO/UNEP, 1992). To add to the problems facing Third World countries, water borne diseases are a serious problem such as those without easy access to piped water in the Metropolitan areas of Southern Brazil are 4.8 times more likely to die from diarrhoea than those with piped water to their house (UNCHS, 1996). As the World Bank points out, "during the past 15 years, the share of households with access to clean water has increased by half, and power production and telephone lines per capita have doubled"

(1994, 1). The fact that low-income settlements are provided with piped water does not mean that there is always water in the pipes. This has long been a problem in poor cities around Africa, but also seems to have afflicted sophisticated cities like Bogota and Buenos Aires in recent years (Perelman, 1994). According to the World Bank, those who are poor gain only limited access to infrastructure improvements.

See Figure 5.3.

Evolving appropriate sustainable city strategies for development requires the re- examination of modern day frameworks of 'the city' as well as its components. The modern day framework has, for over a century, ensured that cities develop at the same phase as political and economic resources. In other words, this meant that as long as there was ample money to disperse as well as access to other resources, modern cities could develop rapidly with little consideration being given to their natural environment and long-term sustainability. Sustainability can be achieved as long as some very basic issues are examined, developed and implemented. Prior to the modernist movement, the majority of town planners, architects and engineers had a natural understanding of the relationship between built form and natural environment.

One characteristic of the modernists was the imposition of their rational concepts to make the earth conform to their vision of man. In order to achieve sustainability, smooth amalgamations of traditional building practices and modern technologies can be developed and implemented.

Figure 5.3 Impact of urbanisation on water and electricity services

o Water - poorest quintile • Electricity- poorest quintile

• Water Access - richest quintile 0 Electricity - richest quintile

Peru

Mexico

Guatemala

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Source: World Bank (1994)

Rural India is still a good example of a sustainable model instituted upon self- construction, self-management and self-financing, where respect for nature is an essential part of the culture and religion and the protection of resources is a necessity and at the same time, a tradition. The environmental sustainability of rural areas is however, closely linked to urban development. Indeed, a lack of suitable housing is one of the principle causes of unsustainability. Housing is the centre of physical and social life, but also the focus of moral life and ethical choice (Cohen, 2000).

Table 5.4: Principles of sustainable development

• The public trust doctrine, which places a duty on the State to hold environmental resources in trust for the benefit of the public.

• The precautionary principle (erring on the side of caution) which holds that where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.

• The principle of inter-generational equity, which requires that the present needs are met without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

• The principle of intra-generational equity, stating that all people currently alive have an equal right to benefit from the use of resources, both within and between countries.

• The subsidiarity principle, which deems that decisions should be made at the lowest appropriate level, either by those directly affected or on their behalf by the authorities closest to them (though for some transitional issues, this implies more effective international laws and agreements).

• The polluter pays principle, which requires that the costs of environmental damage should be borne by those who cause them; this may include consideration of damage occurring at each stage of the life-cycle of a project or product.

Source: Carew-Ried et aI, 1994 as summarised by Selman, 1996 Source: Carew Reid et aI, 1994 as summarised by Selman, 1996

Principles of sustainable development rely on the aptitude of governments to mobilise resources for the general interest of the people, especially for the least advantaged and to ensure an equitable distribution of the wealth of the country. If there is inequality in the distribution of the wealth of the country, it should, as the Rawls' (1972) second principle of justice state, for the greatest benefit of the least advantaged of the society.

On the other hand, principles of sustainable development emphasise the importance of economic growth in harmony with the nature and our physical environment. It should be noted, according to the World Summits held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and in Johannesburg in 2002, cited above, that developed countries are more concerned about the destruction of physical environment than developing countries.

Figure 5.4 illustrates the prerequisites of sustainable development, namely access to adequate housing, employment, education, health services and accessibility to social amenities to which under-developing countries should adhere to so that the majority of their population including the urban poor people can enjoy the benefits of sustainable development.

Figure 5.4 Pre-requisites of sustainable development

(The relationship with all the sectors for Sustainable Development and the positive results arising out of the interaction between the different sectors).

• Accessibility to housing

• Accessibility to employment

• Accessibility to education

• Accessibility to health services

• Accessibility to social amenities

• Accessibility to urban environmental amenities

• Green areas for social amenities

• Residential facilities in green areas

Source: Readapted from Barton, 2000

P

=

Partial sustainability F

=

Full sustainability

• Efficient use of urban environmental amenities

With regard to access to adequate shelter, which constitutes the focus of this debate, underdeveloped countries failed to meet the challenge for low-income households (Erguden, 2001). As a result there is a widespread formation and expansion of slums, which are the synonymous with the failure to establish sustainable development in under developed countries.

Table 5.5 provides criteria that favour sustainability in general and sustainable development in particular. It illustrates the useful way to deal with components such as global ecology, natural resources, local environment, soil provision, economic sustainability and social sustainability.

Table 5.5: Criteria contributing to the creation of sustainable human settlements

Global Ecology

Climate stability • Location that minimise trip lengths, and are well served by public Energy in transport transport

•

Design that fosters walking and cycling and discourages car reliance Energy in Buildings

•

Energy-efficient built form and layout

•

Development of community renewable energy Biodiversity

•

Wildlife refuges and corridors

Natural Resources

Air quality

•

Traffic reduction and air quality management

Water

•

Local sourcing and demand management

•

Local surface water/sewage treatment, aquifer recharge Land Soils

•

Higher densities to reduce urban land take Minerals

•

Local compositing / organic recycling schemes

•

Locally sourced and recycled building materials Local Environment

Aesthetical quality

•

Attractive pedestrian scale local environment

•

Legible environment with a sense of place

Image and heritage

•

Design reflecting distinctive landscape and cultural heritage Soil Provision

Access to facilities

•

Accessible, good quality health, educational, retailing and leisure facilities

Built space

•

Diverse, affordable good quality housing stock

•

Adaptable, good quality commercial/institutional space Open Space

•

Accessible well run parks/playground/play fields / allotments.

I nfrastructu re

•

Adaptable, easily maintained road and utility networks Economic

Sustainability • Diverse and accessible job opportunities with good local training

Job Opportunities services

Economic buoyancy

•

Encouragement for local offices / workshops, home-working and tele- centres

Social Sustainability

Health • Pollution free environment facilitating healthy exercise, local food production and mental well being

• Safe traffic clamed streets with good visual surveillance. Community safety

•

Access to housing for all social groups

•

All facilities easily accessed by foot or public transport, with special Equity and choice attention to needs of children and the disabled

Source: Readapted from Barton, 2000.

For meeting the criteria of sustainable human development, a good quality housing in general, and low-cost housing in particular and neighbourhoods should respond to the criteria described in Table 5.5. The role of place or space playa crucial role in people's happiness and a good design of place or space contribute to stimulate people's creativity. Coupled with the degradation of shelter conditions, environmental pollution is

one of the factors affecting sustainable development negatively. Although developing countries are not directly responsible, in the degradation of the physical environment, the widespread development of slums and informal settlements, where services such as clean water and electricity are not adequately provided, contribute to a great extent to environmental pollution.

UNCHS (1996) focuses its attention on the creation of sustainable human settlements. This is to say that human beings are the first beneficiaries of sustainable development.

It has been acknowledged that the challenges of human settlements are global, but every region and specific site face different problems, which need specific solutions (UNCHS, 1996). Irurah and Boshoff (2003) confirm this statement, when they define specific problems of the developed and developing countries related to sustainable development. Developed countries have to stabilise their economic growth through a shift away from over production and over-consumption, as well as towards the redistribution of resources to the poor within these economies (and the majority of poor in developing countries). Poorer developing countries face the challenge of stabilising urban population growth and fast-track growth responsibly, in order to meet the basic needs of the majority now living in squalor, and to stabilise over-consumption by the wealthy elite. These agreements were signed in two World Summits: Earth summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and the World Summit for sustainable development in Johannesburg in 2002. Figure 5.5 draws the current picture of underdeveloped countries, which seriously affect the realisation of sustainable development, more specifically the improvement of poor people's well-being.

Figure 5.5

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Obstacles to Sustainable Development in Developing Countries

SHORTAGE OF LAND

I