7 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Social Inequality
Structured inequality, and stratification, is a fundamental aspect of social
world. Social inequalities may be rooted in ethnic differences or in the distribution of
property or power (Persell,1987:181). Social inequalities refer to the enequal
opportunities or rewards for people in different social position.
Social inequality is characterized by the existence of unequal opportunities
and rewards for different social positions or statuses within a group or society. It
contains structured and recurrent patterns of unequal distributions of goods, wealth,
opportunities, rewards, and punishments. Racism, for example, is understood to be a
phenomenon whereby access to rights and resources is unfairly distributed across
racial lines. Conversely, "white privilege" is a concept developed by social scientist
Peggy McIntosh to refer to the myriad ways in which white people benefit from
racial inequality, in particular.
There are two main ways to measure social inequality: inequality of
conditions, and inequality of opportunities. Inequality of conditions refers to the
unequal distribution of income, wealth and material goods. Housing, for example, is
an inequality of conditions with the homeless and those living in housing projects
sitting at the bottom of the hierarchy while those living in multi-million dollar
8 where some are poor, unstable, and plagued by violence, while others are invested in
by business and government such that they thrive and provide safe, secure, and
happy conditions for their inhabitants.
Inequality of opportunities refers to the unequal distribution of "life chances"
across individuals. This is reflected in measures such as level of education, health
status, and treatment by the criminal justice system. For example, studies have shown
that college and university professors are more likely to ignore emails from women
and people of color than they are to ignore those from white men, which privileges
the educational outcomes of white men by channeling a biased amount of
mentoring resources to them.
Discrimination at individual, community, and institutional levels is a major
part of the process of reproducing social inequalities of race, class, gender, and
sexuality. For example, women are systematically paid less than men for doing the
same work, and sociologists have conclusively demonstrated that racism is built into
9 2.2 The Definition and The Effects of Racial Discrimination
Human being display a wide variety of colors, shapes, and cultures. The
concept of race has been used to classify Homo Sapiens into several subdivision
based on distinguishable physical characteristic. Recent genetic knowledge suggests
that all people have the ability to reason, that they are born equal, and that there is no
hierarchy of superior and inferior race (Dubinin, 1975:87). Hence, it is obvious that
all people in the world should possess equal capability for attaining the highest level
in intellectual, technical, social, economic, cultural and political development.
However, in the real world there are differences among race in making progress of
such development. In additional Persell (1987:235) states:
“The term geographic race refers to the large human groupings that correspond to major geographic regions such as continents. Geographic divisions such as oceans separated grouping to such an extent that they were not likely to mix. As a result, group tended to develop genetic differences. They may also have development genetic mutations, such as darker skin color or the capacity to store fat effectively, which were useful adaptive traits and thus tended to be preserved.”
Since the sixteenth century, however, there has been increasing migration and
intermixing, of these geographic races. Different cultural and physical environments
have led to variations in the physical characteristics of human population. Because
there is such variation within racial groups and because there is considerable overlap
among such group, the major significance of race is social rather than biological.
Sometimes racial differences become very important in social situations; sometimes
they are not relevant at all. Sometimes racial (physical) differences are also
associated with cultural (ethnic) differences. When they are, that associated tends to
10 Race are distinguished from one another by such characteristics as hair color,
and texture, skin color, eye color, and shape, size of body parts, and facial organs.
According to Persell (1987:235) states:
Traditionally, physical features such as hair type (straight, curry, or woolly), skin color, and the shape of nose, lips, eyelids, or body were widely used to classify human
In addition Schaefer (2012:270) states:
“The term racial group refers to those minorities (and the corresponding domination groups) set apart from others by “obvious” physical difference.”
From statements above, it is clear that race simply a theory that concern only
with physical character. However, humans are outwardly different in appearances. In
a positive manner, one may embrace the differences of people across the face of the
earth and marvel at the uniqueness of individuals who live on different part of the
globe or across the street. People occur if there are claims that these physical
appearances are closely related with moral, intellectual, and other non physical
attributes or abilities. Thus, race becomes a justification for prejudiced beliefs and
discrimination attitude to other that have different physical characteristic.
Racial prejudice is a “prejudged” unfavorable attitude toward the members of
a group who are assumed to possess negative traits. Prejudice is irrational because it
is an attitude that is not based on specific experience with the person being judged. In
fact, being prejudiced may seriously distort people’s observations and judgments.
They may presume individuals have the negative trait they expect, and be unable to
tell if they really have it or not. Prejudice often provides the emotional support for
11 and equal right to individuals and groups based on some type of arbitrary bias.
(Schaefer, 2012:275).
Racial discrimination or racism is most likely to occur when there are
physical or cultural differences between groups, when there is competition over
scarce resources, and when one group has considerably greater power than the other.
Racism is invariably accompanied by an ideology attempting to justify the superior
position of one race and the inferior position of the other race. As a result,
mistreatment of a group people on the basic of race, color, and religion are often
found in the name of race superiority. Because people with racist will hate certain
groups that is different from his own.
The statement above also supported by Schaefer (2012:273) states:
“Racism, the belief that one race is supreme and all others are inferior. When racism prevails in a society, members of subordinate groups generally experience prejudice, discrimination, and exploitation.”
In addition to the characteristic of racial discrimination, E.U.Essien-Udom
(1975:236) gives more explanation, he describe that:
“...therefore that racism exist only if three conditions are simultaneous presents, namely, (1) the physical criteria; (2) beliefs about the inevitable correspondence between the physical and curtural, moral, or intellectual difference among racial groups; and (3) social actions based on those beliefs.”
From Udom statement above, being physically different plays a great deal in
experiencing racial discrimination. Another factor in racial discrimination is when
there is a perception or a belief that certain physical characteristic automatically
possess a certain attitude, morality and ability. Udom also adds that in the case of
12 certain perception or believe. Thus, this definition also gives us a clear picture that
people with racist tend to use their own set of thinking for someone who possesses
certain characteristic must own certain attitude that they need to be aware off.
2.3 Anti-Racism
Anti-racism includes beliefs, actions, movements, and policies adopted or
developed to oppose racism. In general, anti-racism is intended to promote an
egalitarian society in which people do not face discrimination on the basis of their
race, however defined. By its nature, anti-racism tends to promote the view that
racism in a particular society is both pernicious and socially pervasive, and that
particular changes in political, economic, and/or social life are required to eliminate
it.
Anti-racism is both a concept and a practice. Alistair Bonnet says that “Refers
to those forms of thought and/or practice that seek to confront, eradicate and/or
ameliorate racism. Anti-racism implies the ability to identify a phenomenon – racism
– and to do something about it” (2000:4). Anti-racists are not merely the opposite of
racists because racism in institutional and even the staunchest anti-racist can have
internalized racism. As a practice, there are many differing positions and strategies
that can conflict, even though the end goal is the same. Generally, anti-racism can
take two forms; either a revolutionary politics or a strategy to accommodate racial
difference. A further conflict arises because state resources that anti-racism often
13 "Civil rights" are the rights of individuals to receive equal treatment (and to
be free from unfair treatment or "discrimination") in a number of settings -- including
education, employment, housing, and more -- and based on certain legally-protected
characteristics. Historically, the "Civil Rights Movement" referred to efforts toward
achieving true equality for African-Americans in all facets of society, but today the
term "civil rights" is also used to describe the advancement of equality for all people
regardless of race, sex, age, disability, national origin, religion, or certain other
characteristics.
Related to this thesis, in America, The civil rights movement began in the
1950s when, degrading despite the abolition of slavery, black people still lived in
poverty, under a system of racial segregation, known as "Jim Crow". Many southern
states denied blacks the right to vote, organise or meet together. Transport, public
toilets and schools were segregated, with the worst conditions reserved for black
people. Beganning in 1955, when Mrs. Rosa Parks refused to move to the Negro
section of a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, a series of nonviolent civil rights
demonstrations and protests galvanized public opinion, the mass media, and the
world community. Diplomatic representative from independent African nations had
already encountered segregated facilities in United States, creating considerable
international embarrassment.
During this time the underlying economic, legal, and political contexts of race
relations were changing, resulting in a different moral and ideological climate. The
tension between equal rights and segregation grew intolerable. One of the ministers
asked to lead the protest was Martin Luther King. He went on to become the most
14 the March on Washington, where he proclaimed to more than 200,000 blacks and
white assembled at the Lincoln Memorial,”I have a dream….of an America where
blacks and white can walk together as equals” (Persell,1987:239).
The civil rights movement spanned over 25 years, with many anti-racist
groups and organisations growing out of it. Not only was the movement about
fighting racism, it was also about fighting the poverty that many black families were
forced to live in. Even in America today, such movements against racism and
poverty are just as important as ever.
2.4 Literary Review
2.4.1 Sociology of Literature
We can find many phenomena of life in society. Those phenomena can be
found in a literary work such as short story, plays, poem, novel, nursery rhymes and
etc. It happens because literary works are reflection of life phenomena.
Etymologically, sociology derived from the word 'socio' or 'society' which
means people and 'logy'means logos or science. In simple explanation, sociology is a
science of society or science of society life. In a broader explanation sociology is
objective and scientific study of mankind in society, the study of institutions and
social processes. Edward Tiryakian (quoted by Hodges, Jr, 1971:8) states that
sociology is the science which seeks universal knowledge about man’s social
15 reason or justification for the existence of a thing) is to investigate the implications
of Aristotle’s proposition that man is a social animal.
Some conceptualizations of the relationship between literature and society are
rather straightforward: literature is a reflection of society, a force in society, or
simply a separate part of social life. Others argue that the enterprise of literature is
more complex, potentially capturing diverse forms of interaction between various
parts of and players in society. Thus, the roles of literature in society and of society
in literature remain open to debate. That literature is best understood only as
aesthetic creation silences the debate yet leaves many questions unanswered.
In creating a literary work, the work is not only influenced by the society, but
also its writer. As stated by Wellek and Warren (1956: 102), a writer is not only
influenced by society but also he or she influences it and art does not merely
reproduce life but also shapes it. It means that both the writer and society influence
the literary work. Thus, there are three points in sociological approach that should be
noticed. They are social content of the work, the sociology of writer as a background
of his creative process, and the influence of literature society (1956: 96).
According the quotations above, literature is reflection of life in society and
both society and author influence each other. There are three points should be
noticed: social content of the work, the sociology of writer as a background of his
creative process, and the influence of literature on society. I use this approach
because it is suitable with the literature I analyze. In doing this research, I emphasize
16 2.4.2 Film as a form of Literature
Klarer (2004:53) states that “film is made by literary techniques, conversely,
literary practice, developed particular features under the impact of film”. Drama or
film is a piece of work consisting of literary aspect and aspect of performed. Literary
aspect of drama in the form of script and the literary aspect of film is a scenario. As
the movie is developed based on the novel so the writer analyzes the movie based on
the same way of analyzing the novel, it means that how to analyze the movie is the
same as the way how to analyze the literary works because movie is derived from
literary works.
Film’s idiosyncratic modes of presentation such as camera angle, editing,
montage, slow and fast motion often parallel features of literary texts or can be
explained within a textual framework. Although film has its own specific
characteristic and terminology, it is possible to analyze film by drawing on methods
of literary criticism, as film criticism is closely related to the traditional approaches
of textual studies. There are for example, approaches similar text-oriented literary
criticism which deal with material aspects of film, such as film stock, montage,
editing, and sound. Methodologies which are informed by reception aesthetics focus
on the effect on the spectator, and approaches such as psychoanalytical theory or
feminist theory regard film within a larger contextual framework. The major
developments of literary theory have therefore also been borrowed or adapted by
film studies.
In spite of their differing forms and media, drama and film are often
categorized under the healing performing arts because they use actors as their major
17 experimental structuring of the plot, foreshadowing and flashback, the change of
setting and time structure are commonly used in film. Films, and particularly video
tapes, are like novels, which in theory can be repeatedly read, or viewed.
In film, as in other genres, various levels contribute to the overall artistic
impression. This medium, which strongly relies on technical aspects, has several
important, uniquely cinematic features with their own terminology. The most
essential elements of film can be subsumed under the dimensions of space, time, and
sound.
a. Spatial dimension. The deliberate choice of film stock, including black and
white or color, high-contrast or low-contrast, sensitive or less sensitive
material, produces effects which directly influence the contents of a film.
Lighting is indirectly connected to film stock for certain light conditions
have to be fulfilled according to the sensitivity of the film. An important
consideration is the camera angel from which a certain scane is to be filmed.
It is possible to distinguish between high angle, straight-on angle, or low
angle shots depending on the position of the camera. Camera movement is
linked to camera angel and allows for perspective. In the early days of film,
the camera was too heavy to be moved during a scene. When lighter and
more mobile equipment was developed, however, camera could be moved
more freely. The camera angle is closely related to issues of point of view in
literature and proses similar questions. In the majority of films, the
perspective is that of an omniscient “narrator” who at times borrows
subjective points of view of characters in the film. Editing is one of the major
18 The early Russian film developed montage as a filmic technique which
creates effects similar to the use of the rhetorical figures of metaphora and
simile in literature.
b. Temporal dimension. Film, like literature, can employ the dimension of time
in a variety of ways. Aspects of plot which have already been mentioned,
such as foreshadowing and flashback, or interwoven levels of action and
time, can be translated into film. The specific qualities of the medium enable
the treatment of time in ways that do not exist in other genres. Simple
examples of these techniques are fast motion and slow motion, which
defamiliarize the action. The use of clocks, calendars, newspapers, signs of
aging, or fashion are only some of the many ways to indicate the passage of
time in film.
c. Acoustic dimension. It was not until the 1920s that the acoustic aspect was
added to film, bringing about a radical change of the medium. Information
was no longer conveyed merely by means of visual effects such as facial
expressions, gestures, or subtitles, but also through language (dialogue or
monologue), recorded music, and sound effects. Beside dialogue and sound
effects, film music assumes a special position and usually supports the plot.
Volume, sound, rhythm, and pace of the music change according to the
situation and underscore levels of meaning with acoustic effects. Film music
can also contrast with the plot and create ironic or parodistic effects. Plot may
be supported by the conventional and inconspicuous use of music and sound
effects, or the action may be defamiliarized by contrasting the level of
19 dimension acts as an integral element of film, intricately interwoven with
features of the spatial and temporal dimensions.
As with the individual elements treated in connection with the genres of
fiction, poetry, and drama, the different dimensions of film can hardly be seen as
self-contained entities. The isolation of elements is only a helpful tool for
approaching a complex work of art and can never fully account for approaching a
complex work of art and can never fully account for all of its interdependent
subtleties. One must also be aware that the very act of differentiating levels and
elements of a genre is inevitably arbitrary and always remains subject to current
trends, methodological approaches, and the subjective preferences of the person who
complies them. The above dichotomies and classifications are, therefore, meant to
facilitate first encounters with texts, but should by no means be taken as general
patterns according to which texts must be interpreted. On the contrary, they should
ideally yield to combinations with other suitable systems or eventually be selectively
