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THE USE OF EXTRINSIC REWARDS BY AN ENGLISH TEACHER IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL: A CASE STUDY
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Elisabet Anita Sulistiyani Student Number: 021214043
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY JOGJAKARTA
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STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I wrote does not contain the works or part of the works of other people, except those cited in the quotations and bibliography, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, January 2007
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WHENEVER TWO OF YOU ON EARTH AGREE ABOUT
ANYTHING YOU PRAY FOR, IT WILL BE DONE FOR
YOU BY MY FATHER IN HEAVEN.
(Matthew 18: 19 20)
I DEDICATE THIS THESIS TO BAPAK,
IBU, MBAK RENI, MAS ARIS AND
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First and above all, I really thank Jesus Christ who gives me a wonderful opportunity to reach one of my dreams. All of my dreams and my hard work would not have come true without His blessing. Through His grace I meet some people who always care about me and also give me so many invaluable experiences that I will never forget all my life.
I thank Drs. Mukarto, M.S., P.h.D., my major sponsor and Laurentia Sumarni, S.Pd., my co sponsor for their patience, kindness, guidance, critiques, and their willingness to spare a lot of time for me that are really encourage me to do the best.
I give my sincere gratitude to Miss Norma, the English teacher of SD Mungkid I Magelang, who share her experience and give me chance to conduct this research in her class. I also thank the fifth grade students in SD Mungkid I Magelang for their cooperation in collecting the data.
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especially for Lia and Heru, Ratih, Vira, Yuan and Dewa, Ayut, Aji, Puput, Alfons, Dito, and Mas Louise for the joy their bring to my life. The last but not least, I thank Uus for editing this hard work into great output.
I apologize to those who could not be mentioned in this section. Finally, I thank them for all the suggestions, love, caring, critiques, support, and prayer during the process of the writing of this thesis. May God bless them all.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ... i
APPROVAL PAGE ... ii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE ... iii
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... iv
DEDICATIONAL PAGE ... v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... vi
TABLE OF CONTENT ... viii
ABSTRACT ... xiii
ABSTRAK ... xiv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1 Background of the problem ... 1
1.2 Problem Identification ... 3
1.3 Problem Limitation ... 4
1.4 Problem Formulation ... 5
1.5 Objectives ... 6
1.6 Benefits of the Study ... 6
1.7 Definition of Terms ... 7
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ... 8
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2.1.1 Motivation ... 9
2.1.1.1 Definition of Motivation ... 9
2.1.1.2 Theory of Motivation in Psychology ... 10
2.1.1.2.1 Expectancy Value Theory ... 10
2.1.1.2.2 Goal Theory ... 12
2.1.1.2.3 Self Determination Theory ... 13
2.1.1.3 Motivation in Language Learning and English Learning . 14 2.1.1.3.1 Expectancy Value theory ... 15
2.1.1.3.2 Attribution Theory ... 16
2.1.1.3.3 Self Determination Theory ... 17
2.1.1.3.3.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation ... 17
2.1.1.3.3.2 The Relation between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation ... 19
2.1.2 Extrinsic Reward ... 21
2.1.2.1 Definition of Extrinsic Reward ... 21
2.1.2.2 The Use of Extrinsic reward to Motivate Learning ... 22
2.1.2.3 Advantages of Using extrinsic Reward in Classroom activity ...………..….. 24
2.1.2.4 Type of Extrinsic Reward ... 25
2.1.2.5 The Way to Manage the Use of Extrinsic Reward in Classroom Based on Cognitive Evaluation Theory ... 27
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2.1.3 Elementary School ... 34
2.1.3.1 Elementary School Students ... 34
2.1.3.1.1 The Psychological and Cognitive Development of Elementary School Students ... 35
2.1.3.1.2 The Effect of Child Psychological and Cognitive Developmemt Toward Their Motivation ... 36
2.1.3.2 Elementary School Teacher ... 37
2.1.3.2.1 Teacher’s Roles in Teaching Learning Process . 37 2.1.3.2.2 The Implementations of Teacher’s Roles in Increasing Students’ Motivation ... 38
2.2 Theoretical Framework ... 39
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY... 42
3.1 Type of Research ... 42
3.2 Setting ... 43
3.3 Participant ... 44
3.4 Data Collection ... 44
3.4.1 Recording ... 44
3.4.2 Note taking ... 45
3.4.3 Document Analysis ... 46
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CHAPTER 4 : ANALYSIS RESULT ... 48
4.1 The Ocassion in which the Teacher Uses Extrinsic Rewards ... 48
4.1.1 The Activity Level of the Students (ACL) ... 48
4.1.2 The Students’ Performance in Doing the Task (PL) ... 50
4.1.3 The Students’ Attention and Direction in the Activity (ADL) ... 51
4.2 The Management on the Use of Extrinsic Rewards in the Classroom ... 52
4.2.1 The Use of Various Extrinsic Rewards ... 53
4.2.1.1 Based on Everston’s Theory ... 53
4.2.1.1.1 Symbol (S) ... 53
4.2.1.1.2 Recognition (R) ... 54
4.2.1.1.3 Incentives (I) ... 55
4.2.1.2 Based on Deci and Ryan’s Theory ... 56
4.2.1.2.1 TaskContingent Reward ... 56
4.2.1.2.2 PerformanceContingent Reward ... 57
4.2.1.2.3 CompetitivelyContingent Reward ... 58
4.2.2 The Use of Informational Aspect as Major Used Aspect ... 58
4.3 Other Findings ... 60
4.3.1 The Negative Effects of Extrinsic Reward Used by the Teacher .. 61
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CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND
SUGGESTIONS ... 63
5.1 Conclusions ... 63
5.2 Implications ... 66
5.3 Suggestions ... 67
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 69
xiii ABSTRACT
Sulistiyani, Elisabet Anita. 2006. The Use of Extrinsic Rewards by An English Teacher in Elementary School: A Case Study.
Teachers especially in elementary schools often use extrinsic rewards to get students’ attention and raise their motivation since they are adjusted as the predictor of success in learning. However, the use of extrinsic rewards in the classroom could affect the ideal motivation in learning namely intrinsic motivation. Considering some important functions of intrinsic motivation in learning, there should be a management from the teacher in using extrinsic rewards in the classroom in order to protect the students’ intrinsic motivation. This research is aimed to investigate the teacher’s management in using extrinisc rewards by formulating two research questions: 1) In what ocassions does the english teacher give extrinsic reward in the class? 2) How is the extrinsic reward managed by the English teacher?
The research was a case study. It is a qualitative study in nature. The source of the data gathered was an English teacher in SD Mungkid I Magelang. There were three observations which were conducted to collect the data. The data were in the form of class recording taken from the handy camera, field notes (to clarify everything happening in the classroom), interview script (triangulation) and documents.
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ABSTRAK
Sulistiyani, Elisabet Anita. 2006. The Use of Extrinsic Rewards by An English Teacher in Elementary School: A Case Study.
Para guru terutama guru – guru sekolah dasar sering menggunakan hadiah untuk megarahkan perhatian dan memacu motivasi para siswa. Hal ini dilakukan karena motivasi dipercaya sebagai penentu kesukesan dalam belajar. Di lain pihak penggunaan hadiah dalam proses belajar mengajar masih menjadi perdebatan karena pemberian hadiah yang tidak terkontrol dapat menimbulkan efek yang tidak baik bagi motivasi paling ideal dalam proses belajar mengajar yaitu motivasi intrinsik. Untuk itu, penting bagi guru untuk memperhatikan pengelolaan pengggunaan hadiah di dalam kelas mengingat pentingnya fungsi motivasi intrinisk dari para murid dalam proses belajar mengajar demi melindungi motivasi intrinsik itu sendiri. Penelitian ini dimaksudkan untuk meneliti pengelolaan hadiah yang dilakukan oleh guru melalui dua masalah penelitian yaitu: 1) Dalam situasi apa guru memberikan hadiah? dan 2) Bagaimana hadiah tersebut dikelola oleh guru bahasa inggris?
Penelitian ini tergolong dalam studi kasus yang bersifat kualitatif. Sumber pengumpulan data berasal dari salah seorang guru bahasa inggris di SD Mungkid I Magelang. Dilakukan tiga kali masa pengamatan di kelas untuk mengumpulkan data – data yang diperlukan. Data – data tersebut terdapat dalam rekaman kelas melalui handycamera, field notes atau catatan kelas (dimaksudkan untuk memperjelas apa saja yang terjadi di kelas), skrip interview (dimaksudkan untuk adanya trianggulasi), dan dokumen – dokumen.
Hasil analisa untuk permasalahan penelitian yang pertama adalah guru memiliki tiga situasi untuk menggunakan hadiah yaitu activity level, performance level, tingkat perhatian dan arah perhatian siswa. Untuk menjawab permasalahan yang kedua, terdapat tiga sub penemuan yang saling berkaitan. Sub penemuan yang pertama adalah jenis hadiah seperti apa yang digunakan guru (berdasarkan teori Everston dan teori Deci dan Ryan). Guru, berdasarkan teori Everston, menggunakan tiga tipe hadiah yaitu simbol, recognition, dan insentif . Selanjutnya, berdasarkan teori Deci dan Ryan, guru menggunakan tiga jenis hadiah berdasarkan Cognitive Evaluation theory yaitu taskcontingent reward, performancecontingent reward, and competitvelycontingent reward. Jenis – jenis hadiah tersebut memiliki efek yang berbeda terhadap motivasi intrinisik. Kedua, berdasarkan aspeknya, guru cenderung menggunakan hadiah yang bersifat informatif daripada hadiah yang bersifat mengontrol. Sub penemuan terakhir adalah penemuan – penemuan yang lain. Di dalam bagian ini diungkapkan bahwa hadiah yang diberikan guru tersebut sebagian besar memiliki dampak yang baik dalam motivasi intrinsik siswa . Tetapi, masih ada pula hadiah yang memiliki efek yang tidak baik dalam motivasi intrinsik siwa.
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the background of the study, problem identification, problem limitation, problem formulation, objectives of the study, benefit of the study, and the definition of terms.
1.1 Background of the Problem
Learning English for young learners has gotten a special attention from the government since the establishment of the new English curriculum in 1994 (Usman, 1997: 148). This curriculum regulates that English should be taught from the fourth grade of elementary school as local load content or optional subject. The purpose of this policy is to get the elementary school students accustomed to the language so that it will be easier for them to follow the English lesson in the higher level. Another purpose is that the government, with the educational institutions’ capabilities and facilities, tries to prepare the youth to be ready to use the language in the working world from the very beginning.
learning is not only determined by age factor. Some other factors also affect the achievement in second language learning.
Motivation is one of those factors that also have major contribution in the success of second language learning. The word “motivation” does not have a single definition. Each expert usually has his or her own definition based on his or her own perception. Woolfolk, for example, defines motivation as something that energizes and directs behavior (Woolfolk, 1990: 302). Brown, in Woolfolk, also has his own definition. He defines motivation as drive, impulse, emotion, or desires that move one to a particular action. As one of the cognitive factors, motivation mostly discussed among the researcher as the important determiner in the success of second language learning. Even it becomes a predicator of success in second language learning because the learner’s attention and involvement of the activities in classroom verified from it (Stipek, 1993: xi)
Based on the research, intrinsic motivation is the ideal motivation in teaching learning activity. The major advantages of keeping intrinsic motivation are the students will really explore the ability and their memory about their understanding on the lesson could stay longer. This explanation makes the teacher arouse students’ intrinsic motivation in the classroom in order to protect the students’ knowledge in the future. Nevertheless, sometimes the actual condition in teaching learning activities forces the teacher to ignore their responsibility in protecting the students’ intrinsic motivation.
1.2 Problem Identification
Considering the condition that elementary school students still have not realized the importance of learning English for their future and English still becomes a difficult subject for them. It would be hard to expect intrinsic motivation from the elementary school students. Then, some teachers try to think about giving reward for example stuff, grade, reward, or praise for the students who are willing to participate in the activities in class. For example, the teacher offers chocolate to the students who want to answer questions, or who want to come in front of the class and read the dialogue.
There are some dangerous effects if teachers do not control the use of reward in their classroom.
Researchers find out that uncontrolled reward could have bad effect to the students' intrinsic motivation (Atkinson, 1964; deCharms, 1968; Murray, 1964 in Deci, 1971). “Uncontrolled” means giving or offering extrinsic reward without having some basic considerations about the appropriate time, kinds and the effect of such kinds of extrinsic reward toward students’ intrinsic motivation. Deci and Ryan state that extrinsic reward could be useful in the classroom if the teacher really understands when he or she should give extrinsic reward and how to manage it (Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 1983). Without those considerations, extrinsic reward will cause harmful effects in the classroom activities which could undermine the ideal motivation in learning (Ryan, Mims, Koestner: 1983). Thus, the teacher should be careful in deciding the appropriate time to deliver and in managing the use of it in classroom.
In order to achieve the goal in mastering English, it seems that there should be an investigation about the use of extrinsic reward in elementary school. It should be conducted in order to protect student’s intrinsic motivation in learning.
1.3 Problem Limitation
This study discusses the use of extrinsic reward by English teachers in elementary school. To focus the study, the researcher investigates the use of extrinsic reward by an English teacher in SD Mungkid I Magelang. The reason why researcher only chooses one elementary school teacher is that she wants to investigate more deeply on the topic. She chooses the fifth grade students of elementary school in SD Mungkid I Magelang because of the unique characteristics of this class that encourages the teacher to find a creative way to grasp their attention.
SD Mungkid I is one of the elementary schools that still have difficulty in providing the facilities and appropriate methodology to learn English. It is caused by the surrounding, that ignore the importance of learning English, which also influence the students' motivation in learning English. Besides that reason, the researcher also thinks about the time efficiency as the elementary school is close to her house.
1.4 Problem Formulations
1. In what occasions does the English teacher use extrinsic rewards in class? 2. How is the extrinsic reward managed by the English teacher?
1.5 Objectives
1.6 Benefits of the Study
Regarding the danger of the use of extrinsic reward to the students' intrinsic motivation, it is important for the teacher to control the use of it in class. This research, first, serves as a reflection toward her teaching method and strategy and as a note to develop the English class in her elementary school. It is important to enhance the students’ motivation in learning English in the higher level.
For the educational institution, this research also plays a role as the media in monitoring the use of extrinsic reward by English teacher in elementary school. The result of the study could be used as consideration to develop the ability of an English teacher to maintain the use of extrinsic reward in class.
Not only the teacher or the educational institution which could get the benefit of this study, further researcher could also take benefit of this study. This research could be used as additional literature for further researcher who is also interested in the topic.
1.7 Definition of Terms 1. Extrinsic reward
This study tends to use the second definition of extrinsic reward; expected reward. This definition is used based on the consideration that the teacher commonly uses this kind of reward. Finally, extrinsic reward in this study is an expected reward which is given by the teacher to the students in the classroom activity based on some criteria.
2. English teacher
Teachers are people who possess specialized knowledge and skills in education (McNergney and Herbert, 1995: 25). They have also fulfilled requirements for certification or recognition by the state that they have met minimum standards for competence practice (McNergney and Herbert, 1995: 25). Based on the definition before, English teacher is a teacher who has specialized knowledge and skills in teaching English and has certification in that scope of knowledge.
3. Elementary school
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter contains theories that support the study. The supporting theories are under two sub topics in this chapter. The sub topics are the theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theories and concepts about motivation, extrinsic reward, and elementary school are discussed in the theoretical description. The implementation of the theories in this study will be discussed in theoretical framework.
2.1 Theoretical description
This sub topic consists of an explanation about three theories, which underlie this study. The first theory is motivation theory. In the motivation section, there are explanations about the definition of motivation, theory of motivation in psychology (which covers expectancyvalue theory, goal theory and selfdetermination theory), theory of motivation in language learning and English learning (which illustrates the application of three theories of motivation in language learning and English learning), and the relation between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations.
based on Cognitive Evaluation Theory, and behavior indices which illustrates the time to use extrinsic reward in the classroom.
The last section in theoretical description is elementary school. It covers two topics namely elementary school students and elementary school teacher. The first section about elementary school students explains the psychological and cognitive development of them and the effect of those developments in their motivation. On the other hand, the second section about elementary school teacher covers explanation about teacher’s role in teaching learning process and the implementation of it in increasing students’ motivation.
2.1.1 Motivation
2.1.1.1 Definition of Motivation
Worchel and Shebilske define motivation as a reason why an organism acts in a certain way in certain time caused by some energy or source from the body which devices temporarily translates the capabilities into actions (Worchel and Shebilske, 1989: 373 374). However, others even wrongly define motive as motivation. Motive is the condition that energizes and directs the behavior. When there is a crowd in the market, someone will have a motive to come closer and be motivated to know what happened there (Worchel, 1989: 373).
2.1.1.2 Theory of Motivation in Psychology
2.1.1.2.1 Expectancyvalue theory
This theory believes that humans are innately active learners with an inborn curiosity and an urge to get to know the environment and conquer some challenge (Dornyei, 2001: 20) Therefore the major attention of this theory is not the learners’ motive but rather what directs and shapes their inherent motivation. Based on the main principles of expectancy value theory, motivation to perform the task determined from two keys: the individual's expectancy of success and the task value (Dornyei, 2001: 20). For example when a person is doubtful whether he or she could finish his or her assignment or when he or she realizes that task will not gain him or her, he or she will be uncertain to perform the task.
From the educational point of view, experts state some important aspects that determine the expectancy of success. Dornyei tries to categorize it in three aspects (Dornyei, 2001: 21). The first aspect is people's experience in the past (attribution theory). This theory, he further argues, tries to explain about how people past experience about success or failure will affect his or her performance. For example: a student who gets an A for his or her exam will have confidence to come in front and answer the teacher's question on the other hand the student which get an E, will have low confidence in showing his or her ability.
show his or her competency in the activities given by the teacher. The last aspect is selfworth theory. It is believed that sense, personal value and worth are the cause of motivated people, especially in the face of competition, failure, and negative feedback.
The second aspect of expectancy–theory, based on Dornyei’s explanation, is value (Dornyei, 2000: 22). Value affects how much effort people put into activities, how they feel about their outcomes, and how they show their commitment on the activities (Stipek, 1993: 22). Children who value sports performance than English will exert more effort on the field than in English class. It happened because they experienced greater pride and satisfaction in this subject than English. Value also affects individual selfesteem. Harter (1987) in Stipek reported his study on this topic. Through his study, he assumes that perception of low competence for the children with high value will have bad effects on their self esteem (Stipek, 1993: 22)
2.1.1.2.2 Goal theory
Goal is the engine to fire the action which providing the direction of act (Dornyei, 2001: 25). According to Dornyei, the basic concept of this becomes a fundamental approach of motivational process. He states that there are two influential theories in goal theory. The first theory is goalsetting theory. Goal setting theory states that act is caused by purpose. In this theory is categorized based on its degree namelyspecificity, difficulty andgoal commitment.
The second theory is goalorientation theory. This theory was developed to explain children's learning performance in the classroom. It is probably the effective theory to explain about motivation happened in the classroom. The theory, in Dornyei, highlights two contrasting achievement orientations among the students; mastery orientation and performance orientation. The difference between these two orientations is the focus of the students' goal. Mastery orientation focuses on the learning content or mastery goal. On the other hand, performance orientation focuses on showing ability, getting good grades, etc or performance goal. Both orientations have different success criteria, which affect different reasons for engaging in the activity.
2.1.1.2.3 Selfdetermination theory
SDT is an approach to human motivation and personality that uses traditional empirical methods while employing an organism metatheory that highlights the importance of human evolved inner resources of personality development and behavioral selfregulation (Ryan, Kuhl, Deci: 1997)
integration as well as the condition that accompany that process (Ryan and Deci: 2000).
Based on those perceptions, Deci and Ryan proposed three kinds of needs: the need for competence, the need for relatedness, and the need of autonomy. These needs are essential for facilitating the natural tendencies function for growth and integration as well as for constructive social development and personal well being (Ryan and Deci: 2000).
The need for competence is a motive which has evolutionary adaptive value to impel the organism to deal more effectively with environment (White: 1959 in Stipek, 1993: 60). Stipek states that human beings have few competencies innately provided and need to learn a great deal about how to deal with the environment. Thus, they have to adopt it.
The second need is relatedness. Relatedness, based on Deci and Ryan, is a sense of belongingness and related to the persons, group, or culture disseminating a goal. In classroom practice, it means that the teacher has to pay attention to the students' feeling of being respected and cared for the teacher, this feeling has a major contribution in accepting the classroom activities value. This kind of need could be shown by giving some feedback toward their works after they have completed the assignments given. The feedback could stimulate the students’ sense of belongingness in the lesson.
avoid punishment (deCharms: 1976, 1974; Deci: 1975; Deci and Ryan: 1985 cited in Stipek, 1993: 60).
Much of the research guided by SDT has also examined environmental factors that obstruct or undermine selfmotivation, social functioning and personal well being. There were some harmful effects that were found, but the research also suggests some alternative ways to prevent the three basic psychological needs. From this description, SDT is concerned not only with the specific nature of positive developmental tendencies, but it is also examines social environments that are antagonistic toward these tendencies (Deci and Ryan: 2000).
2.1.1.3 Motivation in language learning and English learning
Motivation is also absolutely necessary for the sustained type of learning because of its role as the tool to focus the students' attention persistence, and to increase the excitement in class (Ausubel, Vovak, Hanesian, 1978: 397). Based on Ausubel and his friends, some research have placed motivation in an important position toward intrinsic and positive motives a curiosity (Berlyne: 1996), exploration (Montgomery: 1959), activity (W.F hill: 1956), manipulation (Harlow: 1950; Terrel: 1959), mastery of competence (Ausebel: 1956a; white: 1959) and the need of simulation (Butter: 1954).
2.1.1.3.1 Expectancyvalue theories
The most important implication of expectancy theory for education is the common sense preposition task for students should be neither too easy not too difficult (Slavin, 1991: 333). Slavin concludes that expectancy theory could not be appropriately interpreted to suggest that question asked in class or worksheet items should be answered correctly by only half of the students. An individual question or worksheet item does not actually call for effort, but rather for knowledge which is gained from previous effort. This theory, he argues, also bears more on the criteria for success, as in grading. If some students feel that they are likely to have an A no matter what they do, the motivation will be maximum. On the other hand, if the students feel that they will fail the exam, their motivation will be minimum. From that description, the teacher should improve the criteria for getting an A, in order to make it more difficult but possible to be reached, and make the criteria of getting worst grade easy to be reached for them who have little effort.
the member languages, will be major motivational factors which also determine the result in the future. Recently, Clement have extended the applicability of the selfconfidence construct by showing that it is also significant for L2 in foreign language situation.
2.1.1.3.2 Attribution theory
Attribution is relatively important in understanding how students might interpret the use of feedback on their academic performance, and in suggesting to teachers how they might give feedback that has greatest motivational value (Slavin, 1991: 326). In classroom practice, students who believe that their past failures on tasks were due to lack of ability are unlikely to expect to succeed in similar tasks, and therefore unlikely to exert much effort. Obviously, according to Slavin, the belief that students will fail can be selffulfilling; if the students believe they will fail, they may be poorly motivated to do academic work.
The teacher, as the motor in class, has to pay attention to this problem. They have to find an idea to make their feedback effective. The grading system also fit to be included in this theory (Slavin, 1991: 324). This grading system could make small differences in achievement level. However, it could be large when the students who receive the poorest grades may assume that they can never learn. 2.1.1.3.3 Selfdetermination theory
for its own sake in order to experience pleasure and satisfaction. For example, the joy of the students in doing the activity or task in class. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is motivation which exists because of some extrinsic reward (e.g. grades, money, praise etc) (Dornyei, 2001; 27). Those kinds of motivation express different reasons why the students engage in the activity in class.
2.1.1.3.3.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Vallerand (1997) in Dornyei proposed three subtypes of intrinsic motivation (Dornyei, 2001: 28). The first subtype is the intrinsic motivation to learn. In this type of intrinsic motivation, a student will engage in the activity for pleasure and satisfaction of understanding something new, satisfy his or her curiosity and exploring the world. Next, there is an intrinsic motivation to achieve something. For example: when a student engages in an activity because it is challenging or because he or she wants to accomplish or create something. The last is intrinsic motivation to experience something new. For example, the “punk street” becomes trend today. Some of the high school students learn how the “street punker” live (how they dressed, how their hair cut) without knowing about the philosophy of “street punker “. They want to be a “street punker ” because they just want to experience it.
motivation. Students who have intrinsic motivation in learning something will express these kinds of behaviors:
1. The students will spontaneously draw connection between the knowledge that they get from school and the application of it with the activities and interest outside the school
2. The students will ask questions that go beyond the specific task at hand.
3. The students will work on tasks whether or not extrinsic reward is present (grades, money).
4. The students will have fun and enjoy working on the tasks 5. The students will take pride in their achievements.
Extrinsic motivation also consists of some sub types. Dornyei proposed four kinds of extrinsic motivation (Dornyei, 2000: 28). External regulation is the first sub type. External regulation is a form of extrinsic motivation which is coming entirely from external source such as extrinsic reward or threats. This kind of extrinsic motivation is popular among the teacher in this country because, based on the experience, this is the easiest way to grasp the students’ attention on the lesson.
activity based on its usefulness and high values. For example when they feel that English is useful and it promises a better future, the students will agree to follow the English course in their school.
Now, there are some students who study something because he or she wants to be like others and does not want to be called old fashioned. Dornyei categorizes that kind of motivation in this last type of extrinsic motivation: integrated regulation. It is the most advanced type from extrinsic motivation, involving choice full behavior that is fully assimilated with the individual’s other values, needs and identity.
2.1.1.3.3.2 The Relation between Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic
Motivation
The relation between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation is the presence of extrinsic reward, such as grade, praise, money etc as the basic attention of students to engage in the activity or task (Stipek, 1993: 67).
Intrinsic motivation could also affect on conceptual understanding and creativity. Benware and Deci (1984) in Stipek compared subjects who were told that they would simply be tested on material they were asked to learn to subjects who were told that they were learning material to teach other students. Those who learned the material because it would be tested had poor understanding than those who learned the subject because they have to teach other students. This result clearly shows the different conceptual understanding on using intrinsic motivation.
Nicholls in Stipek stated that intrinsic motivation also focuses on the student’s attention. This advantage is discovered by differentiating between learning goals and performance goals. When the students are intrinsically motivated, they are task oriented. It means that the student’s attention is focused on the process of completing the task or making sense and mastering the material (Stipek, 1993: 83). Given this advantage, it is important to optimize intrinsic motivation in the classroom.
Although there were some opinions that rejected the use of extrinsic reward in class, other studies did not find the expected negative relationship between the two types of motivation. Deci and Ryan, again, state that extrinsic reward could also enhance intrinsic motivation if the teacher use it in special way based on its function and aspect (Deci and Ryan: 1985).
2.1.2 Extrinsic Reward
2.1.2.1 Definition of Extrinsic Reward
Extrinsic reward is an expected reward that is given by someone in some particular purposes (Stipek, 1993: 104). Expected reward is a reward which is offered to subject before they are working on the target activity (Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 1983) Others said that extrinsic rewards are those that provide satisfaction independent of the learning activity itself and are controlled by someone except the students. Based on the definition above, it seems that extrinsic reward has the same definition as reinforcers. Those, who have opinion that extrinsic rewards are different from reinforcers, have two kinds of reasons why they are different.
second opinion is taken from The Skinnerian. Reinforcers are things or stimuli which influence more strongly than extrinsic rewards.
In the opposite side, some experts use the term “extrinsic reward” and reinforcers interchangeably. Some of them are Stipek in her book “Motivation to Learn”, Walker in his book” Behavior Management: a Practical Approach”, and Johnson in his book “Educational Psychology”. They found the similar definition between reinforcers and extrinsic reward: they are controlled by someone and could strengthen the behavior.
Extrinsic reward in this study is the same as Stipek and Deci’s definition. Extrinsic reward is an expected reward that is offered by the English teacher in elementary school for some purposes. This term is used in this study in order to express the negative effect of uncontrolled extrinsic reward in intrinsic motivation in the teaching learning activity.
2.1.2.2. The Use of Extrinsic Reward to Motivate Learning
The basic principle of the use of extrinsic reward to motivate learning is operant conditioning theory (Johnson, 1979: 316). There are two famous proponents in this theory: Thorndike and Skinner. Thorndike had not revealed the term operant conditioning theory yet. But he was the first psychologist who built the concept of the theory.
cat to attempt to get out of the cage. Through a trial and error process, Thorndike found that the cat eventually learned to open the door quickly whenever he was hungry. According to the result of this experiment, he had an opinion that reinforcement or extrinsic reward is important in learning.
B.F Skinner is the psychologist who has done the most to develop and apply the ideas originally proposed by Thorndike (Johnson, 1979: 214). He used a rat as the object of his experiments. From observing the behavior of the rat in the skinners box, he concluded that when an emitted response is reinforced, the probability that it will be repeated increases. Then he called that process Operant conditioning because the rat operated on his environment by trying out different types of behavior and repeating that behavior that obtains the consequences he wants.
The concepts of Skinner in operant conditioning theory become the basic concept of extrinsic reward in teaching learning activity. The students will try to do some actions to get the consequences they want. Those consequences could be some extrinsic reward for those who do some actions.
2.1.2.3 Advantages of Using Extrinsic Reward in Classroom Activity
It sounds reliable when we consider some conditions that truly happened in class. Extrinsic reward could be the savior of unintrinsically motivating task. It could produce interesting atmosphere in class, and could develop the students’ willingness to engage in the activity. The teacher could also manage the use of it in order not to have detrimental effects on intrinsic motivation (Stipek, 1993: 104).
In learning, Ausubel argues that extrinsic reward could influence learning in three general ways (Ausubel, 1978: 416). First, extrinsic reward could help to set of meaningful problem by relating a specific sequence or organization of learning activities to specified goal outcome. This goal, in his opinion, is really necessary because without such relatedness goal, learning would often tend to be undirected (For example: when the students do not want to answer the question given by the teacher). It is difficult for the teacher to measure the students’ understanding. This condition makes it difficult for the teacher to manage the next activities which are concerned with the students’ understanding. It leads into unrelated – goal activities.
Second, extrinsic reward could make the students interested in the activity. It is clear that extrinsic reward could make the students have a good attention on the activity in class. There are so many advantages which could be gained from the students’ attention. For example: the teacher could easily convey the material in the class.
next activity. For example: when a children is given a chocolate by a teacher for a good attitude in class, he or she will try hard to be nice in class, although it is done in order to get more chocolate from his or her teacher.
2.1.2.4 Types of Extrinsic Reward
There are different types of extrinsic reward which proposed by Everston and his friends, including symbols, recognition, activities, and materials (Everston; Emmer; Clements; Sanford; Worsham, 1984: 54 56). Each type has its own classification. Symbols are usually used by elementary teachers to communicate a positive evaluation of students work. It includes letter grades and numerical scores, happy faces, checks or check plusses, and also stars or stickers with an appealing design.
In my experience, numerical scores are the most common symbol in educational institution in this country. It always becomes a measurement of the stage of intelligence of children. In order to be smart children the students have to reach the highest score in school. With these achievements, both the teacher and the parents will be proud of them.
in the class activity. This system is rarely used in Indonesia. It is because recognition is less popular than symbol in our society.
Allowing students to do something special or enjoyable is categorized as a type of extrinsic reward by Everston and his friends. Some privileges, just like freereading time, game time or game leader, could lead the students to give good response for the activity. This kind of privileges could be found in the kindergarten school when the teacher asks the students to keep silence in the end of the lesson. And those who really do her or his command could leave the class first.
The last type of extrinsic reward is material incentives. They define material incentives as objects or value to students. Example includes food, pencil, eraser, games, toys or books. This type is the other common extrinsic reward used by the teacher in Indonesia.
2.1.2.5 The Way to Manage the Use of Extrinsic Reward in Class Based on
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
As stated before, Deci and Ryan conclude that there is a way to reduce the negative effect of extrinsic motivation toward the intrinsic motivation. It is done by controlling the use of reward in class based on its function. In order to explain the use of this controlled reward, Deci and Ryan proposed a theory called Cognitive Evaluation Theory (Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 1983). This theory, they argue, asserts the effects of extrinsic reward on intrinsic motivation by providing an analysis of the relative salience of the informational versus controlling aspect of the extrinsic motivation.
The informational aspect conveys meaningful feedback in the context of selfdetermination. This aspect could be varying in the effect. It depends on whether the information signifies that person is competent at the target activity (suggesting competence) or incompetent (suggesting incompetent) (Stipek, 1993: 69).
On the other hand, Stipek (1993: 69) states that the controlling aspect of extrinsic reward pressures people toward specified outcomes. If a reward is experienced as making people do something, in other words, if the activity must be done in some particular way at some particular time or in some particular place for the person to receive the extrinsic reward, the extrinsic reward tends to be experienced as controlling.
motivation tends to undermine extrinsic motivation (Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 1983). Based on this result, the teacher has to give the extrinsic reward mostly in an informational aspect in order to enhance intrinsic motivation.
Based on the theory, Deci and Ryan classified four kinds of extrinsic reward. They are task noncontingent reward, taskcontingent reward, performancecontingent reward and competitivelycontingent reward (Ryan; Mims; Koetner: 1983).
Tasknoncontingent reward shall be interpreted to mean expected rewards that are given to people for participating in an activity or task. They are rewarded simply for their presence without respect to the completion or quality of task activity. In order to find out its effect on intrinsic motivation, some researchers try to make a comparison study between the use task noncontingent rewards to non reward.
Deci (1973), in Ryan Mims and Koestner, offered college students $ 2 for participating in puzzlessolving experiment and found that both rewarded students and unrewarded students had the same intrinsic motivation in doing the puzzles. They also mentioned some experts who also did the similar study. Pinder (1976) replicated this result with the college students, and Swann and Pittman (1977) reported similar result for elementary school children. Thus, it appears that task noncontingent reward tends not to decrease intrinsic motivation because they do not create an instrumentality or are not experienced as controlling.
chocolate for doing the task given by the teacher. Taskcontingent reward, as stated by Deci and Ryan, is different from the first kinds of reward because it is not only given for those who presence but also have to do some task given. It is usually given for completing the task without gaining information about the quality of performance.
Several studies have compared the effects of taskcontingent reward with either no reward or tasknoncontingent reward in order to find out the evidence of its effect on intrinsic motivation. Deci and Ryan stated some of them. Deci (1971) reported that taskcontingent reward decrease intrinsic motivation relative to no reward. Similar results were reported by Weiner and Marder (1978). Cooper and Smith (1977) and Smith and Pittman (1978) also found that taskcontingent reward decrease subject’s intrinsic motivation for game activities. Other studies were also done to the children and the result was the same (Danner and Lanky: 1981; Fazio: 1981; Morgan: 1981).
contingent reward plus positive feedback to no reward group, no feedback. Both studies found that two groups did not differ.
In sum, many the weight of evidence makes it clear that taskcontingent reward decrease intrinsic motivation relative to no rewards if the taskcontingent reward are administrated without addition of explicit performance feedback.
The second comparison is between taskcontingent reward and tasknon contingent reward. The relation between these two kinds of extrinsic reward is not clear as it is. There are any little support on the hypotheses that taskcontingent reward are more undermining intrinsic motivation than task noncontingent reward (Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 1983).
Pinder (1976) and McIntyre (1977) are mentioned by Deci and Ryan as two researchers who agree with the statement. They expected that under some conditions, taskcontingent reward would be more detrimental to intrinsic motivation than tasknoncontingent reward. However Deci and Ryan had their opinion about it. According to them, that condition could happen based on the degree of control conveyed by the extrinsic reward. When one must complete a task to get a reward, the task is more likely to be seen as something must be done to get the reward. This makes the extrinsic reward have more controlling aspect than tasknoncontingent reward. On the other hand, if the extrinsic reward is used as completion of a task, it could provide as informational aspect about the students competency.
common situation, taskcontingent reward provides more controlling aspect than informational aspect. It means that taskcontingent reward tends to more undermine intrinsic motivation than tasknoncontingent reward.
The third kind of reward is performancecontingent reward. It is kind of extrinsic rewards, which is given for a specified level of performance, that is, for meeting a set of criterion, norm or level of competence. Some of the researcher had an opinion that this kind of extrinsic reward typically conveys the information about the students’ skill or competence (informational aspect). For example: the students could have chocolate if they could answer all the questions correctly.
On the other hand, performancecontingent reward, according to Deci and Ryan, is a result of collaboration between two aspects of extrinsic reward namely controlling aspect and informational aspect. By requiring a specified level of performance, the extrinsic reward is taking part as controlling aspect, but it also increases the informational value of the extrinsic reward it self. Considering the example above, it is clear that the students have to answer the question correctly to get the extrinsic reward. It shows the controlling aspect of the reward to the students. However, it also provides the competence information about the students.
Other studies report another result from the comparison between performancecontingent reward and taskcontingent reward. Although the results are mixed, there is a major result that performancecontingent reward enhances intrinsic motivation relative to taskcontingent reward without any feedback (Ryan; Mims; Koestner: 1983).
Competitivelycontingent reward is the last types of extrinsic reward based on cognitive evaluation theory proposed by Deci and Ryan. It refers to situations in which the people compete directly with others for a limited number of competitors. For example: there is only one gold medal for the fastest and smartest students of doing the quiz. Deci, Bertley, Kahle, Abrams, and Porac (1981) in Ryan’s and his friends’ did a research on facetoface competition relative to no reward. They found that this kind of extrinsic reward decreased subject’s intrinsic motivation and controlled the students in engaging in the activity. Lepper and Greene (1974), in Ryan et al did a research of competitively contingent reward relative to taskcontingent reward with no reward and the result was the same.
It is clear that not all extrinsic rewards bring the negative effect on intrinsic motivation. However, some of them also have negative effect on the student’s intrinsic motivation. In this condition, the teacher plays an important role in maintaining the students' intrinsic motivation. Using extrinsic reward to grasp the students' attention is not a wrong decision. However, its use should be controlled in order to protect the students' intrinsic motivation.
2.1.2.6 Behavior indices: Time to Use Extrinsic Reward in Class
Knowing the procedures of using extrinsic reward in class without bothering students’ intrinsic motivation, it is also important to know the right time to use extrinsic reward in class. Before the teacher uses extrinsic reward in classroom activity, he or she has to pay attention to the students’ behavior which indices their motivational problem.
Maehr (1984) in Stipek (1993: 11 12) describes four behavior patterns can be used as indices of motivational problem in learning. The first problem is the direction of the students’ attention and activity. When they do not pay attention to the class activity or they do another activity in class, the teacher has to pay attention to them. Because this behavior could be one indicator of the students’ motivational problem.
The activity level of the students in doing the task should also get a big attention from the teacher. Stipek argues that the students’ intensity in doing something could be observed from their attitudes. For example, their earnestness in doing their group task. Their earnestness could be showed by their participation, their enthusiasm etc.
Performance is the last indicator in this section on Stipek’s point of view. It is the accumulation of all indicators before. The students’ performance in task, whether they are interested enough in the task, or how they choose the difficult task or the easiest one could be the teacher’s consideration in using the extrinsic reward.
2.1.3 Elementary School
2.1.3.1 Elementary School Students
Relevant to the subject of the study, the characteristics and development of the fifth grade students of elementary school will be discussed in this sub topic.
2.1.3.1.1 The Psychological and Cognitive Development of Elementary School
Students
middle childhood era (Raig, 1979: 396 398). Raig argues that middle childhood is adjusting to the new environment of school and developing work and play habits along with many new interests. During this time, he added, the child experiences many developmental challenges and conflicts that prepare him or her for adolescent and adulthood. This condition also affects his or her psychology as well. Because of the changes, the children have intense curiosity and no longer quite at ease with self and other. It could affect their work habits. They, Raig explains, become overwhelming toward personal and social interest and often have difficulty in sustaining interest in school work. This illustration explains the reason why the elementary school students, sometimes, are hard to concentrate and do not have enthusiasm in completing their homework
2.1.3.1.2 The Effect of Child Psychological and Cognitive Development
toward Their Motivation
Based on their psychological development and their characteristics, the teacher has to pay attention to the students' motivation. Because they usually have problems with their interest in school, it becomes really important to manage their motivation in learning. Intrinsic motivation becomes more crucial to be developed, but it also becomes more difficult to be reached. But of course there are still some ways to develop their interest. Extrinsic reward becomes one of those ways. But, again, the teacher has to maintain the use of it in order to prevent their later development.
Considering the cognitive development of the students in this grade, the teacher should maintain their way on evaluating his or her students. Extrinsic reward could be one of the ways to appreciate their performance on doing something. It also could affect their ability in classifying the consequences they have in doing something. By using appropriate kinds of extrinsic reward, the teacher could both maintain students' intrinsic motivation and their self esteem.
2.1.3.2 Elementary School Teacher
2.1.3.2.1 Teacher’s Role in Teaching Learning Process
have good competence on the material they teach. As a demonstrator, the teacher has responsibility on delivering their knowledge to the students. The teacher also has responsibility for the students' understanding on the lesson.
Besides, the teacher also plays a role as a learning manager. A teacher should have the ability to manage the class. As we know, the atmosphere of the class and its surrounding affect the process of teaching learning ability. Here, the role of teacher as a learning manager demands him or her to manage the class atmosphere and surroundings in order to create comfortable condition in teaching learning activities.
Third, the teacher as a mediator of a facilitator. Media also plays an important role in classroom activities. By using media, the teacher could be helped to convey material to the students. The knowledge and the ability to use appropriate media in class is the role of the teacher as mediator and facilitator.
As an evaluator, the teacher has responsibility in giving feedback to the students. The teacher has to manage the feedback in order to maintain the student’s progress in the lesson. Evaluation is also important for the students in order to measures their capability or progress on the classroom.
2.1.3.2.2 The Implementation of Teacher’s Role in Increasing Students’
Motivation
In the scope of motivation, the teacher also has great involvement in determining students' motivation. There is a formula about the students' motivation to learn something (Jones; Jones, 1995: 104).
This formula suggests that students will not be motivated unless three components are present. First, they expect they can accomplish the task. Second, they find value in it. Third, they complete the task in an environment supportive of their basic personal needs.
From that explanation, it is clear that the teacher has a certain role in students' motivation by running their role as a teacher. By running their role as a learning manager, the teacher could create a comfortable environment. Through this role, the teacher also could make the activity or task become valuable. And by being a demonstrator, he or she could convince the students that they could do the task given because they have already learned about it.
In the setting of this study, one of the task values given from the teacher could be an extrinsic reward. This value seems to be more interesting for the fifth grade of elementary school then intrinsic terms. By using extrinsic rewards, the students also have challenge to accomplish the task. It could also create such atmosphere that supports the students in doing the task. But, it is also the teacher's duty as the learning manager to manage the use of extrinsic reward and the teaching learning process.
2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
There are three theories of motivation which has its own application in learning process. One of the theories is selfdetermination theory. This theory does not only concern about how people could be motivated but also investigated some harmful points toward motivation and how to prevent with it (Deci and Ryan: 2000). Based on the concept of selfdetermination theory, there are two kinds of motivation which could be occurred in learning. They are intrinsic and extrinsic motivations (Dornyei, 2001: 27)
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations contribute different sources of reasoning for the person to engage in the activity. Intrinsic motivation is motivation which comes from the learner it self without correlation with outside factor. In this kind of motivation, students will not think about what they will get if they do an activity because they actually get something when they join that activity. On the other hand, a student with extrinsically motivated reason will do something if there is an effect that will follow his or her act. For example: a teacher offer A+ for those who could do the exercise in 5 minutes. Then, the students have spirit to do the exercise.
The problem is not all of the students have intrinsic motivation in learning, especially for young learners, for example Elementary school students. Students in this critical age do not really know how to use of their knowledge in the future. Based on the experience, some of them usually learn something because they want to get good grade. This condition becomes complicated when they have to learn something new for example English. It is very difficult to expect intrinsic motivation in English class.
Deci and Ryan, then, found a solution about that problem. They claimed that extrinsic reward is not as dangerous as people think. It could be done in teaching learning process by some consideration and management. The teacher has to know about kinds and aspect of extrinsic reward in classroom and find appropriate time to deliver it in class.
This study is intended to find out how the English teacher in SD Mungkid 1 uses and manages extrinsic reward in her classroom. There are three kinds of theory will be used to find the answer. The first theory is behavior indices (Stipek, 1993: 11 12). This theory will help to find the appropriate time in using extrinsic reward. There are some indications which could be used in this study.
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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
This chapter covers all important points that refer to the research implementation. The discussion includes the type of research, setting, participant, data collection, and data analysis.
3.1 Type of research
The term “research” can mean any sort of careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field and knowledge undertaken to discover or establish facts and principles (Frankael and Wallen, 1993: 7). There are many methodologies that are fit this definition. That’s why it is important to classify which methodology that is appropriate with the purpose of the research in order to obtain reliable important information. This information is the basic of the result of the study.
