CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURES
2.1 Overview of Translation
Translation is derived from the word “translate” and “–ion”. Translate or to translate has a definition as to give the meaning of something said or written into another language as found in Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (1974:919) and –ion is a suffix which means forming nouns denoting the action of a verb (Martinus 2008:102). Oxford Learner Pocket Dictionary (2008:473) defines the word “translate” as to put something written or spoken into a different language. Some experts have defined the meaning of translation to give a better explanation to the reader; for instances, Larson (1984:51) states that a text form in the source language is replaced by the text form in the target language.
Newmark (1988:5) states translation as “rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text.” He also adds translation is to transfer as many SL (Source Language) words to the TL (Target Language). Supporting Newmark’s idea about the definition of translation, Muchtar (2013:7) also says “Basically translation is transferring messages from SL to TL”.
equivalent textual material in another language (TL)”. From this definition, Catford is apt to emphasize on material replacement than concern about transferring meaning.
Bell (1991:5) says, “Translation is the expression in another language (or the target language) of what has been expressed in another source, language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalence” (His translation from J, Dubois, Dictionaire de
Linguistique). From this definition, Bell gives clear explanations and meaning about the
concept of translation that translator as the subject who works on translating, must concern about the aspect of linguistic and style.
Nida (1982:12) says, “Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. According to Nida, When we translate or transfer some words from the source language text into the target language; the closest meaning, equivalence, and natural from a source language is the necessity. Therefore, Nida suggests that the translator should concern about the equivalence of meaning.
The last, Beckman and Callow (in Silalahi 2012:11) states that penerjemahan
adalah mengkomuni-kasikan satu pesan dari satu bahasa ke bahasa yang berbeda. (the
indeed, concerning the equivalence and making the result sounds natural in terms of communicating and or is basically an action which applied by replacing one language to another language in order to get the meaning or reproduce the new words of text which absolutely have equivalence in meaning from source language to target language.
2.2 Function of Translation
Language has determined its position on the top of the world for so many centuries. The role of language becomes the main key in connecting one nation to another nation. “7,000 languages are found on this earth and the world's most widely spoken languages by number of native speakers and as a second language, according to figures from UNESCO (The United Nations’ Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), are: Mandarin Chinese, English, Spanish, Hindi, Arabic, Bengali, Russian, Portuguese, Japanese, German and French.” (based on BBC.co.uk/languages).
The existence of language is accordance with the development of cultural life. Newmark (1988:94) says “Culture as the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to community that uses a particular language as its means of expression.” Thus, language and culture is two substantives which can be denied its existence in common life.
Based on the connection between language and culture, Beekman and Callow (in Silalahi 2012:11) states that penerjemahan adalah mengkomunikasikan satu pesan dari
satu bahasa ke bahasa yang berbeda. (Translation is to communicate one message from
one language to another different language). The definition by Callow is clearly stated that translation is one of activity which tries to bring culture from one nation into another different culture of the nation.
Substantiating Callow’s definition on translation relates to the function of translation, Newmark (1988:10) states “Translation is now used as much to transit knowledge and to create understanding between groups and nations, as to transmit culture.” From Newmark’s statement, it clearly confirms and supports the function of translation which is not only just to render one message of language to another language, but also more dealing with the aspect of culture; thus, the message through which the real writer conveys would be directly sent to the reader without any misconception.
2.3 Process of Translations
Nida (in Venutti 2000:131) says “Live languages are constantly changing and stylistic preferences undergoes continual modification. Thus, a translation acceptable in one period is often quite acceptable at a later time.” The statement of Nida indicates us that the life of language always follows the development of the world and time as well as the translation does.
who carry on the translation, the translator should acknowledge transferring a written message from a source language into the target language without changing the meaning of the source language. So to speak, translating is not something easy to do, because it requires process to do.
De Groot (in Silalahi 2012:11) defines the translation as “sebagai kegiatan merumuskan kembali teks tulis bahasa sumber dalam teks tulis bahasa sasaran.” (An activity which re-formulating the source text into the target language). Groot’s definition of translation brings out translation as a process to recreate or reproduce new form of source target which applied in target language.
Furthermore, supporting the idea of Groot’s definition, Nida (in Venutti 2000:127), in his book Principles of Correspondence, states about some factor while translating sort of text; consist of (1) the nature of the message, (2) the purpose or purposes of the author and, by proxy, of the translator, and (3) the type of audience.
Supporting the idea which proposed by Nida, Nababan (in Muchtar 2013:19) states that the translation process is divided into three steps, namely:
1. Analysis
The most determinant steps for translator, because it is dealt with the context, message, and meaning which is within TL and decision which translator would apply in transferring step.
2. Transferring
Transferring is the next step after analyzing which done by the translator to render the content, message or meaning which is contained in SL into TL. 3. Restructuring
The last step in translating process in which the translator set in motion to re-arrange the content, meaning and message which obtained from SL and the translator re-writes the result into text.
Bell (1991:21) confirms his idea about translation by adducing clear image which shows the process for the translator to come by. Commonly, Bell shows the process of translation with the diagram below :
Table 1 : The Diagram of Translation Process by Bell (1991:21)
favor of preventing misconception of meaning. Next step is to analyze the pragmatics; in order to acknowledge the purpose of source text, the structure of thematic in source text and the style of the source text; as Yule (1996:4) states that pragmatics is the study of relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms. This step will bring forward some option for the translator to determine what the best choice for the text to translate whether to maintain or to change the purpose, the structure and the style of the source text.
2.3.1 Translation Approach
The Translation Approach is related to the way of the translator to overtake the translation problem; furthermore, leading to the good translation. While translating, translator can choose the best approach for a translation, if translator starts translating from the lowest linguistic unit (word to the sentence), the translator try applying
down-top approach or bottom-up approach (see Baker 1992:6). Otherwise, the translator tries
to start from the highest linguistic unit (sentence to word). The approach is top-down
approach.
Nord (in Silalahi 2012:20), has stated about the five steps in top-down approach, namely:
1. Text function-in-situation 2. Cultural norms and conventions 3. Linguistic structures
According to Nord about the top-down approach; firstly, analyze the problem in the text based on the function and cultural situation in target language. Then, the translator should decide how the translation is adjusted to the cultural norms and customs from the target language. Furthermore, adjusting the equivalence of the source language and the target language is the priority; in terms of preventing misunderstanding in the context. The decision to adjust the equivalence in text makes some limitation for the translator applying technique and methods of translation in the text.
Top-down approach is ideal approach and theoretically, this approach tends to concern the process of transferring the highest linguistic unit; that is text (Silalahi 2012:22). Newmark also supports the using of the top-down approach as the guidance for the translator to apply into the translation, Newmark (in Silalahi 2012:21) says, “ The second approach to translating is top to bottom, which every translation teacher recommends and the poor students follow, but perhaps few instinctive translators practice.”
2.3.2 Strategy of Translation
Gerloff (in Gandomkar and Karimnia 2013:23) has classified the strategy of translation into seven points:
1. Problem identification.
On this stage, a translator tries to identify words in the text by using dictionary, encyclopedia, grammars, online databases.
2. Linguistic analysis.
The translator analyzes the syntax and lexical structures. The understanding and comprehending the SL is very important at this stage.
3. Storage and retrieval.
The translator searches memory for SL or TL equivalents in a dictionary or online databases, identifies recognized word or unrecognized word.
4. General search and selection.
The translator repeats pronunciation of linguistic units in SL or TL, find and give its synonyms, its alternative meaning or tentative meanings.
5. Text inferencing and reasoning
The translator uses his knowledge and experience to answer the problem, make hypotheses, and decide the meaning of the word which the translator got from other sources.
6. Text contextualization.
7. Task monitoring.
The translator conducts check and re-check progress, the translator makes comments and personal opinions on information in the text. As consideration, the translator may order eligible translator to read the result of translation; then, making comments toward the text.
2.4 The Ideology of Translation
In the process of analysis, knowing who the target of the translator (the reader) and what the purpose of the translation is a compulsory for the translator. This process is a must for the translator before translating the source text; as the result, the translator cannot avoid this process for any reason. The unavoidable process is due to the first step before applying the method and the technique in translating process (Muchtar, 2013:104).
After the process of analysis, the translator must have known the problem in source text. Then, the translator can apply the method and the technique in order to transfer the meaning of the source text into the target text. Bearing in mind, some translators have different thoughts in order to solve the problem in translation. The different thought of the translator is brought about the ideology (Muchtar 2013:104).
as the foundation of thinking and acting). Ideology becomes so important for translator to go by, because the ideology is the way of thinking before translating the source text.
Silalahi (2012:53) says, “Terjemahan yang ‘benar’ tergantung ideology yang
dianut”. (Translation is 'right' depends on ideology held). In other words, ideology lead
the translator to comprehend and overhaul the text thoroughly and also become the social-cultural activity in society (Hoed in Silalahi 2012:53). Ideology of translation is consisted on two different orientations as Venutti states in Hoed (in Muchtar 2012:87), namely foreignizing translation and domesticating translation.
2.4.1 Foreignizing Translation
Foreignizing translation is an ideology which is oriented on the source language
(Muhizar 2013:105). Translators who follow the foreignizing to go by, they consider the SL as subject which does not have problematic for the reader. Translator wants to accentuate the existence of the source language into the society and believe the existence of the source language as the beneficial things for society and good learning for introducing new culture.
The translator does not try to translate the source language words, but uses some words or terms of the source language which is familiar to the society, for instance:
iPhone, tips, control and many other words. The translator uses some words which have
2.4.2 Domesticating translation
Domesticating translation is an ideology of translation which is oriented to the target language (Muhizar 2013:105). The translator who follows this ideology, consider the translation is supposed to be relevant to the target language culture. The translator believes the product of translation should become a part of the society and represent the existence of the target language.
Instead of using source language words or terms, the translator who follows this ideology, feel to translate all the words or terms into the target language. Thus the result of translation seems to become acceptable to the society, because of the usage of foreign language words or terms is reduced.
2.5 Translation Methods
Molina and Albir (2002: 507-508) defined translation method as the way of the translation process can be done in accordance with the purpose of translation. The translation methods will determine the result of the overall text in the future. Method comes after the translator have determined the ideology and the strategy; then, the translator sets in motion to begin the translation process.
2.5.1 SL Emphasis Method
Supporting the idea of Newmark, Silalahi (2012:55) describes SL Emphasis Method consists of :
1. Word-for-word translation
The word-for-word translation concerns about the structure of words; in another word, this translation method is related to the grammatical structure of the source language. Instead of finding the equivalence of meaning from the source language to the target language, translator tends to maintain the structure of the source language.
2. Literal Translation
The literal translation method actually has a similarity with word-for-word translation in concept of translating by not focusing on the context. But literal translation is not same with word-for-word translation; indeed, both of methods have the same concept, but literal tends to change the into grammatical construction of the target language.
3. Faithful translation
Faithful translation tries to produce the contextual meaning of source language; nevertheless, the procedure defies the grammatical structure of the target language. 4. Semantic Translation
2.5.2 TL Emphasis Method
Supporting the idea of Newmark, Silalahi (2012:58) describes TL Emphasis Method consists of :
1. Adaptation
Adaptation is more focused on rendering the context of the source language to the target language. After translating by using this method, the form of source language will be changed into a new form. Thus, the translation result is not commonly regarded as a real product of translation, but tends to be a rewriting process from the source language into the target language.
2. Free Translation
Free translation results a new translation which has contain no style or form of the source language. The free translation method is not attached with the seeking of equivalent in word level process. This method is apt to stay close with the message of the source language text.
3. Idiomatic Translation
Idiomatic translation tries to reproduce the contextual meaning of the source language text into the target language text; nevertheless, the process tends to affect the nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialism or idiom.
4. Communicative Translation
2.6 Technique of Translation
Related to the process of translation, Molina and Albir (2002:509) define technique as a choice made by the translator, its validity will depend on various questions related to the context, the purpose of translation, audience expectation, etc. They also define technique of translation as a procedure to analyze and classify how translation equivalence work. Substantiating their definition about technique of translation, Molina and Albir adduce the five basic characteristics of technique of translation.
1) They affect the result of the translation
2) They are classified by comparison with the original 3) They affect micro-units of text
4) They are by nature discursive and contextual 5) They are functional
Molina and Albir (2002:509-511) adduce the technique of translations into :
1. Adaptation. Translator replaces the element of source language culture with the
element of the target language culture.
For example, 1. Laskar Pelangi in Indonesia is translated into Rainbow Troops in English.
2. Ada apa dengan Cinta? in English changes into What’s up
2. Amplification. To introduce details that are not formulated in the ST:
information, explicative paraphrasing.
For example, 1. When translating Ramadhan into English, the translator may add some information, such as Ramadhan, month of fasting.
2. When translationg ulos into English, the translator may add some information, such as ulos, the ceremonial clothes of bataknese people.
3. Borrowing. To take a word or expression straight from another language. The
change may be pure (without any change) or made as natural as possible to TL, in order to fit the spelling rules.
For example, 1. Control in English changes into Kontrol in Indonesian.
N N
2. Computer in English changes into Komputer in Indonesian.
N N
4. Calque. Literal translation of a foreign word or phrase; it can be lexical or
structural.
For example, 1. Photo studio in English changes into foto studio in Indonesian.
2. Brigade General in English changes into Brigadir Jenderal in
Mod Head N N
Indonesian.
5. Compensation. To introduce a source text (ST) element of information or
stylistic effect in another place in the target text (TT) because it cannot be reflected in the same place as in the ST.
For example, 1. This Quick Start Guide tells you how to set up your iPhone in English changes into Petunjuk mulai cepat ini membimbing anda
bagaimana cara mengatur iPhone in Indonesian.
2. To see your picture in English changes into untuk melihat foto
(kepunyaan) anda in Indonesian.
6. Description. To replace a term or expression with a description of its form or/and
function.
For example, 1. To translate the Indonesian Tarombo as the scripture which tell
about the family tree in Bataknese people in English.
2. To translate the Indonesian ngaben as traditional cremation
which performed by Balinese people in English
7. Discursive creation. To establish a temporary equivalence that is totally
For example, 1. The English translation of Semudah Menjentikkan Jari tangan as Finger Tips.
2. The English translation of mouse as tetikus.
8. Established equivalent. To use a term or expression recognized (by dictionaries
or language in use) as an equivalent in the TL.
For example, 1. To translate the English expression general as umum in Indonesian.
2. To translate the English expression photo as gambar in Indonesian.
9. Generalization. To use a more general or neutral term.
For example, 1. To translate the Indonesian membuat, melakukan, menjadikan,
memproduksi, as make in English.
2. To translate the Indonesian mendapatkan, mengambil,
memanggil as get in English.
10. Linguistic amplification. To add linguistic elements. This is often used in
For example, 1. To translate the English expression Don’t be so mean into Indonesian as Jangan kasar begitu instead of using an expression with, jangan kasar.
2. To translate the English expression Are you nuts? into Indonesian as Kau gila apa? Instead of using an expression with Apakah kamu gila?
11. Linguistic compression. To synthesize linguistic elements in the TT. This is often
used in simultaneous interpreting and in sub-titling. It is in opposition to linguistic amplification.
For example, 1. To translate the Indonesian expression tidak apa apa With it’s
ok, in Indonesian, instead of using a phrase with nevermind.
2. To translate the English rude expression Son of bitch into Indonesian as kurang ajar instead of using an expression with,
anak pelacur.
12.Literal translation. To translate a word or an expression word for word in text.
For example, 1. Create folders. Organize apps in English translated into
V N V N
Membuat folder. Mengatur aplikasi in Indonesian.
2. Cut, copy, and paste in English translated into V V conj V
Potong, salin dan tempel in Indonesian. V V conj V
13. Modulation. To change the point of view, focus or cognitive category in relation
to the ST; it can be lexical or structural.
For example, 1. To translate an expression She got kicked from her office in English, instead of dia ditendang dari kantornya; but dia dipecat in another expression of English She’s fired.
2. To translate an expression whichever route you take in English, instead of, yang mana saja rute kamu ambil; better to use di mana
pun rute anda in Indonesian.
14. Particularization. To use a more precise or concrete term. It is in opposition to
generalization.
For example, 1. To translate canggih in Indonesian as sophisticated in English, instead of modern.
2. To translate kenangan in Indoensian as reminiscence in English, instead of memory.
15.Reduction. To suppress a ST information item in the TT. It is in opposition to
For example, 1. Bar Mitvah, the Jewish boy coming of age rituals is translated into Bar Mitvah.
2. Country music, Southern United States popular music is translated into Musik Country, whitout any additional information.
16. Substitution (linguistic, paralinguistic). To change linguistic elements for
paralinguistic elements (intonation, gestures) or vice versa.
For example, 1. To translate the Indonesian gesture of putting your hand on your head as giving honor.
2. To translate the Japanese gesture of bowing your body down as
giving honor or greetings.
17. Transposition. To change a grammatical category without changing the meaning
within the same language.
For example, 1. Development of the nation is our priority
N
Developing the nation is our priority
Gerund
To develop the nation is our priority.
2. Folders are automatically named by category
Adv
Folders are in automatic named by category
Prep Adj
18. Variation. To change linguistic or paralinguistic elements (intonation, gestures)
that affect aspects of linguistic variation: changes of textual tone, style, social dialect, geographical dialect, etc.
