A MORPHOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE ENGLISH PREFIXES
DIS- AND DE-
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
AMELIANA WIDYASTUTI
Student Number: 044214025
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
i
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
AMELIANA WIDYASTUTI
Student Number: 044214025
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
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“So make the best of this test
and don’t ask why
It’s not a question
but a lesson learned in time
It’s something unpredictable
but in the end it’s right
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my endless gratitude to Jesus Christ, Mother Mary and St. Francesca for their blessing so that I am able to finish my thesis. Without Them, I am nothing.
I am indebted gratitude to Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd, M.A. for the advice, suggestion, correction, patience and jokes. I am proud to have you as my advisor. ☺ Without you, I will not be able to finish my thesis. I also thank Adventina Putranti S.S, M. Hum as my co-advisor, for the correction and suggestion.
I would like to give my deepest thank to my parents; ‘Momze’ and ‘Popze’ for the support, both spiritual and financial. Thank you for your endless love, prayer and attention. I do not know how to reciprocate everything you have done and given to me. I would like to thank my big brothers Aris, Andy and Didit; my lovely nephews Nyo-Nyo and Dede’ Tio; my law Mbak Tanti; and my sister-in-law-to-be Mbak Ika for the love, support and attention.
I also would like to express my greatest thank to my very special ‘friend’ Nanang Prasetyo for everything you have done and given to me and most of all is for the love and care. ☺
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‘Informatika Atma ‘04’, Melly ‘Obat Alami UGM ’04’, and Dimas ‘PBI UNY’ 03’ for editing the table of contents. The last but not least, I would like to thank all the people who always have supported me especially during my time in college that cannot be mentioned one by one. Thank you so much!!!! I love you all!!!
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APPROVAL PAGE ... ii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE ... iii
MOTTO PAGE ... iv
DEDICATION PAGE ... v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vi
LEMBAR PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH ...viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix
ABSTRACT ... xi
ABSTRAK ...xiii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ... 1
A. Background of the Study ... 1
B. Problem Formulation ... 3
C. Objectives of the Study ... 3
D. Definition of Terms ... 4
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW ... 5
A. Review of Related Studies ... 5
B. Review of Related Theories ... 6
1. Affixation ... 6
2. Negative Prefixes ... 8
3. Reversative Prefixes ... 9
4. Privative Prefixes ... 11
5. Review on Morphological Study ... 12
6. Review on Prefix dis- ... 14
7. Review on Prefix de- ... 16
C. Theoretical Framework ... 18
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ... 19
A. Object of the Study ... 19
B. Method of the Study ... 20
C. Research Procedures ... 20
1. Data Collection ... 20
2. Selecting the Sample ... 21
3. Data Analysis ... 21
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS ... 22
A. Stems that the Prefixes dis- and de- Take ... 22
1. The Stems that the Prefix dis- Takes ... 22
2. The Stems that the Prefix de- Takes ... 26
B. The Derived Words with the Prefixes dis- and de- and Their Meaning ... 29
1. The Derived Words with the Prefix dis- and Its Meaning ... 29
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b. The Meaning of the Prefix dis- ... 33
2. The Derived Words with the Prefix de- and Its Meaning ... 37
a. The Derived Words with the Prefix de- ... 37
b. The Meaning of the Prefix de- ... 42
C. The Similarities and Differences between the Prefixes dis- and de- ... 46
1. The Similarities between the Prefixes dis- and de- ... 46
2. The Differences between the Prefixes dis- and de- ... 48
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ... 50
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 53
APPENDICES ... 55
Appendix 1. List of the Derived Words with the prefix dis- with the Roots/Stems NOUN ... 55
Appendix 2. List of the Derived Words with the prefix dis- with the Roots/Stems VERB ... 74
Appendix 3. List of the Derived Words with the prefix dis- with the Roots/Stems ADJECTIVE ... 87
Appendix 4. List of the Derived Words with the prefix dis- with the Roots/Stems ADVERB ... 92
Appendix 5. List of the Derived Words with the prefix de- with the Roots/Stems NOUN ... 94
Appendix 6. List of the Derived Words with the prefix de- with the Roots/Stems VERB ...118
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Prefixes Dis- and De-. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University.
Affix is an important part of English Language since the process of affixation is frequently used in this language. Based on the place of occurrence, an affix is categorized into prefix, suffix, and infix. The process of adding an affix to a stem is called affixation process. Affixation is frequently used in English Language. Consequently, many English words are formed through affixation. The derived words can be nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs. In English Language, there are often several affixes that have the same function that can make non-native users of English confused. However, this study only focuses on the prefixes dis- and de- that have several same meanings.
In analyzing the prefixes dis- and de-, this study attempts to answer three problems: what stems that the prefixes dis- and de- take; what words that those two prefixes produce and what meaning that they introduce; and what similarities and differences between those two prefixes.
This study is an empirical research since it relies on the primary data that are used. This is a morphological study because the analysis is based on the attachment of the prefixes to construct a word. The data that are used are the analyzable derived words with the two prefixes which are taken from Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of English Language Unabridged (1981). Since there are 1410 analyzable derived words with the prefixes dis- and de-, a random sampling strategy is applied to this study. The primary data that are used are the random sample of every second word.
Based on the analysis, the prefix dis- takes nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs as its stems. Meanwhile, the prefixes de- only takes nouns, verbs, and adjectives as its stems. When attached to nouns, the prefix dis- produces nouns and verbs. Meanwhile, when attached to verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, it also produces verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The prefix dis- almost never combines with certain suffixes to coin new words. There is no derived word with the prefix dis- that is coined by the process called back formation. When attached to nouns, the prefixes
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Prefixes Dis- and De-. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Afiks merupakan bagian penting dalam Bahasa Inggris karena proses afiksasi sering digunakan dalam bahasa tersebut. Berdasarkan tempatnya, afiks dikategorikan dalam awalan, akhiran, dan sisipan. Proses penambahan afiks pada kata dasar disebut proses afiksasi. Proses afiksasi sering digunakan dalam Bahasa Inggris. Maka dari itu, banyak kata-kata Bahasa Inggris yang terbentuk melalui afiksasi. Kata-kata turunan tersebut dapat berupa nomina, verba, adjektiva, atau adverbial. Dalam Bahasa Inggris, ada beberapa afiks yang mempunyai fungsi yang sama yang dapat membingungkan orang yang bukan merupakan pengguna asli Bahasa Inggris. Meskipun demikian, studi ini hanya fokus pada awalan dis- dan de- yang mempunyai beberapa makna yang sama.
Dalam menganalisis awalan dis- dan de-, studi ini mencoba menjawab tiga pretanyaan: kata-kata dasar apa yang mendapat imbuhan awalan dis- dan de-; kata-kata turunan apa yang dihasilkan awalan dis- dan de- dan makna apa yang kedua awalan tersebut perkenalkan; dan apa saja persamaan dan perbedaan antara kedua awalan tersebut.
Studi ini adalah sebuah penelitian empiris karena mengandalkan pada data utama yang digunakan. Studi ini merupakan studi tentang morfologi karena analisisnya berdasarkan pada pembentukan kata dengan awalan dis- dan de-. Data yang digunakan adalah kata-kata turunan dari awalan dis- dan de- yang dapat dianalisa yang diambil dari kamus Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of English Language Unabridged (1981). Karena terdapat 1410 kata-kata turunan dari awalan dis- dan de- yang dapat dianalisis, studi ini menggunakan strategi penarikan contoh secara acak. Data utama yang digunakan adalah contoh acak setiap dua kata.
Berdasarkan pada analisis, awalan dis- dapat diimbuhkan pada kata dasar nomina, verba, adjektiva, dan adverbia. Sedangkan awalan de- hanya dapat diimbuhkan pada kata dasar nomina, verba, dan adjektiva. Ketika diimbuhkan pada kata dasar nomina, awalan dis- menghasilkan kata turunan nomina dan verba. Sedangkan ketika diimbuhkan pada kata dasar verba, adjektiva, dan adverbia, awalan
dis- juga menghasilkan kata turunan verba, adjektiva, dan adverbial. Awalan
dis-hampir tidak pernah bergabung dengan akhiran tertentu untuk menciptakan kata baru. Tidak ada kata turunan dengan awalan dis- yang tercipta dari proses yang disebut
back formation. Ketika diimbuhkan pada kata dasar nomina, awalan de- juga menghasilkan kata turunan nomina dan verba. Ketika diimbuhkan pada kata dasar verba, awalan de- menghasilkan kata turunan verba. Sedangkan ketika diimbuhkan pada kata dasar adjektiva, awalan de- menghasilkan kata turunan verba. Awalan
de-kerap bergabung dengan akhiran tertentu untuk menciptaka kata baru. Ada beberapa kata turunan dengan awalan de- yang tercipta melalui proses back formation. Awalan
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1 A. Background of the Study
Language is very important for human life. For people in general, language is used as a mean of communication. For a particular group of people, language has other functions. For writers or authors, for example, language can be used as a means to express their ideas to become writings, stories, or novels. There are also some people who use language as their research field. Those people are called linguists. The study of language itself is called linguistics. In his book Morphology: Second Edition, Matthews (1991:2-3) wrote that the field of linguistic theory includes at least four major subfields. The first subfield is phonology, which is “concerned with the functioning of sound-units within the system of individual languages”; and phonetics, which is “concerned with the nature and typology of speech sounds in themselves” (phonology and phonetics are one subfield which is “handled on two theoretical levels”). The second is syntax, “which traditionally covers both the constructions of phrases and sentences and also the features of meaning which are associated with them”. The third is semantics, “the study of the meaning of words and phrases, including the meaning of idioms”; and pragmatics, “the study of the meaning of words or sentences in specific situations”. The fourth is morphology, which is “concerned with ‘the forms of words’ in different uses and constructions”.
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is frequently used in English is affixation. A word that has undergone the process of affixation consists of more than one morpheme, and it is called a complex (or
polymorphemic) word. The base to which other morphemes are added is called the
root; it can be considered the basic morpheme in the word.
Based on the place of the occurrence, an affix is categorized into four groups:
prefix, suffix and infix. A prefix is an affix that is placed before the stem; a suffix is an affix placed after the stem; an infix is an affix placed between the stems or inside the stem (Fromkin, Blair, Collins, 2000:68-70).
Affix is an important part of the English language, since the process of affixation is frequently used in this language and consequently so many English words are formed through affixation. English language has many affixes with so many different function and usage. There are affixes which change the part of speech of the root words (for example the suffixes -al and -less), the meaning of the root words (for example the prefixes in- and un-), and so on.
help English learners in studying the attachment and the meaning of English prefixes
dis- and de-.
B. Problem Formulation
In analyzing the English prefixes dis- and de-, this study attempts to answer the following questions:
1. What stems do the prefixes dis- and de- take?
2. What words do those two prefixes produce and what meaning do those two prefixes introduce?
3. What are the similarities and differences between those two prefixes?
C. Objectives of the Study
Related to the problem formulation above, this study has three objectives. The first objective is to identify what stems that the prefixes dis- and de- take; whether they are noun, adjective, verb, or adverb.
The second objective is to identify what stems that the English negative prefixes dis- and de- produce; whether they are noun, adjective, verb, or adverb; and to find out the meaning that those two prefixes introduce.
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D. Definition of Terms
Several terms are used in analyzing the prefixes dis- and de-. In order to avoid the misunderstanding of the meaning of the terms, this section presents the definition of each term.
A morpheme is “the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function” (O’Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, Rees-Miller, 2005:113). It cannot be broken into smaller units without destroying its meaning (Gleason, 1961:53). It can be grouped into free and bound morpheme. Free morpheme is a morpheme that can be a word by itself (for example ‘go’, ‘danger’, ‘sad’), while bound morpheme cannot stand by itself and has to be attached to another element (O’Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, Rees-Miller, 2005:113). Affixes are the examples of bound morphemes (Szymanek, 1989:14)
5 A. Review of Related Studies
A similar study had been conducted by Olivia Soenantho (2006). She wrote a thesis titled ‘A Morphological Study of English Prefixes Mega-, Macro-, Poly-, Multi-‘. In her thesis, she formulated three problems: what classes of words the prefixes mega-, macro-, poly-, multi- take, what classes of words the prefixes mega-, macro-, poly-, multi- produce, and what meanings the prefixes mega-, macro-, poly-, multi- carry. In analyzing those problems, she used theory of affixation, theory of word classes, and theory of meaning. From her analysis, she came to three conclusions. First, the prefixes mega-, macro-, poly-, multi- take nouns and adjectives as their stems. Most of the stems taken by those prefixes are rooted from Greek and Latin. Second, the word classes of the derived words remain the same as the word classes of the stems. Third, the general meaning of the prefixes mega- and macro- is ‘large’ while the meaning of the prefixes poly- and multi- is ‘many’. Yet, besides the core meaning of ‘large’ and ‘many’, each of the prefixes also carries their specific meanings.
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between those two prefixes. Theory of affixation and theories of negative, reversative and privative prefix are used in analyzing those three problems.
B. Review of Related Theories
1. Affixation
A morpheme is “the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function” (O’Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, Rees-Miller, 2005: 113). It cannot be broken into smaller units without destroying its meaning (Gleason, 1961: 53). For instance, the words plate cannot be broken into pla and te, which do not have any meaning; or glass cannot be broken into gl and ass. Although ass has its own meaning, the meaning has no relation with the meaning of glass.
English morphemes can be grouped into free and bound morpheme. Free morpheme is a morpheme that can be a word by itself. In other words, free morpheme is a morpheme that can stand by itself (for example: ‘pencil’, ‘book’, ‘pillow’, ‘happy’). While, boundmorpheme is a morpheme that cannot stand by itself. It must be attached to another element (O’Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, Rees-Miller, 2005: 113). Affixes are the examples of bound morphemes (Szymanek, 1989: 14)
In his book English Morphology, Dwijatmoko (2003: 9) states that “an affix is a bound morpheme which is attached to an already existing word to form a new word or to show a syntactic meaning”. The base to which other morphemes are added is called the root; it can be considered the basic morpheme in the word, for example
lexical category, such as noun (N), verb (V), adjective (A), or preposition (P) (O’Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, Rees-Miller, 2005: 115).
Based on the place of the occurrence, an affix is categorized into four groups:
prefix, suffix and infix. A prefix is an affix that is placed before the stem; a suffix is an affix placed after the stem; an infix is an affix placed between the stems or inside the stem (Fromkin, Blair, Collins, 2000: 68-70).
Based on the function, affix can be divided into derivational affix and
inflectional affix. A derivational affix is an affix which functions to change the
meaning of the base to which the affix is attached, for example un- + happy →
unhappy (‘not happy’). It also can function to change the part of speech of the base to
which the affix is attached, for example fortunate (Adjective) + -ly → fortunately
(Adverb). An inflectional affix is an affix which functions to change the form of the
same word, for example girl (singular) + -s → girls (plural), wait (present tense) + -ed
→ waited (past tense), eat (present) + -en → eaten (past participle) (Katamba, 1993:
47-50).
The process of adding an affix to an already existing word to make a new word out of it is called affixation. Fasold and Connor-Linton (2006: 66) states “the most common morphological process for modifying a root is by adding something to it – the process of affixation”. Affixation is frequently used in English language. Consequently, many English words are formed through affixation. The derived words can be nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. Nominalization is a process of the formation of a noun from a verb or an adjective, for example demonstrate (V) + -ion
→ demonstration (N), capable (A) + -ity → capability (N). Verbalization is a process
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encode (V), pure (A) + -ify → purify (V). Adjectivization is a process of the
formation of an adjective from a noun or a verb, for example attract (V) + -ive →
attractive (A), health (N) + -y → healthy (A). Adverbialization is a process of the
formation of an adverb from an adjective by adding the suffix –ly, for example happy
(A) + -ly → happily (Ad), clever (A) + -ly → cleverly (Ad) (Dwijatmoko, 2003: 13).
2. Negative Prefixes
Since prefixes are (bound) morphemes, they, automatically, have meaning(s). Prefixes un-, in-, non-, and dis-, for example, have meaning ‘not’, ‘the opposite’ (Quirk et al, 1985: 1540). They are called negative prefixes because when they are attached to adjectives (A), they form negative words (words that have the opposite meaning from their root words or stems). In his book Introduction to Morphological Analysis, Szymanek (1989: 267) writes “affixal negation in English is primarily a phenomenon from the domain of de-adjectival derivation”. For instances, un- + happy (A) (‘pleased’) = unhappy (A) (‘not pleased’), in- + effective (A) (‘capable of bringing about an effect; productive of result’) = ineffective (A) (‘not capable of producing an intended effect’), non- + negotiable (A) (‘that can be negotiated’) = non-negotiable (A) (‘that cannot be negotiated’), dis- + loyal (A) (‘faithful’)= disloyal (A) (‘not faithful’). The meanings in the brackets are based on Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged (1981).
(1.a) unhappy (1.b) ineffective
A A
un- A in- A
happy effective
(1.c) non-negotiable (1.d) disloyal
A A
non- A dis- A
V -able loyal
negotiate
Those four prefixes (un-, in-, non-, dis-) are the English prefixes that are most commonly used in deriving negative adjective even though there are another negative prefixes such as a- : achromatic, no- : no-win solution, etc (Szymanek, 1989: 267&273). However, Szymanek (1989: 272) adds that “the prefix dis- is a weakly productive negativizing element”. It is only attached to a small number of Latinate adjectives (and nouns).
3. Reversative Prefixes
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dis- is attached to verbs derived from Latinate and Romance bases, mostly beginning with a vowel. The prefix de- is often attached to “de-adjectival, causative verbs in – ize”. It is also occasionally attached to Latinate verbs in –ate and –ify. He also adds that “base-forms of other types, i.e. ones which do not involve any of the typical causative suffixes (-ize, -ate, -ify) are very rare” (1989: 295).
The examples of the reversative verbs are: un- + lock (V) (‘to fasten the lock of something’) = unlock (V) (‘to unfasten the lock of something’), dis- + continue (V) (‘to be steadfast or constant in a course or activity’) = discontinue (V) (‘to break the continuity of something’), de- + activate (V) (‘to make something active’) = deactivate (V) (‘to make something not active’). The meanings in the brackets are based on Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged (1981).
The structures of the instances can be shown using tree diagrams as follows: (2.a) unlock (2.b) discontinue
V V
un V dis- V
lock continue
(2.c) deactivate V
de- V
4. Privative Prefixes
Prefixes un-, dis-, and de- can also be classified into privative prefixes. They also have meaning ‘deprive of’, ‘free from’, ‘lack of’ (Quirk et al, 1985: 1541). Szymanek (1989: 278) states that the privative verbs can be paraphrased as ‘cause to no longer have’. Privatives are “based on the underlying concept ‘remove’” (1989: 298). Quirk et al. (1985: 1540&1541) adds that prefix un- is attached “limitedly to nouns, turning them into verbs”, for example un- + mask (N) (’a cover or partial cover for the face usually made of cloth with openings for the eyes’) = unmask (V) (‘to remove a mask from), prefix dis- is attached to “open class items including verbs”, for example dis- + member (N) (‘someone or something that belongs to a particular group’) = dismember (V) (‘to cut or tear of or disjoin the limbs, members or parts of’), dis- + faith (N) (‘belief and trust in and loyalty to God’) = disfaith (N) (‘lack of faith’), and prefix de- is attached “fairly freely to verbs and deverbal nouns” and nouns, for example de- + louse (N) (‘any of various small wingless usually flattened insect that are parasitic or warm-blooded animals) = delouse (V) (‘to remove lice from’), de- + forest (N) ( = deforest (V) (‘remove tree from’)) + -ation = deforestation (N) (‘the removal of tree from’). The meanings in the brackets are based on Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged (1981).
The structures of the instances can be shown using tree diagrams as follows:
(3.a) unmask (3.b) dismember
V V
un- N dis- N
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(3.c) delouse (3.d) deforestation
V N
de- N V -ation
louse de- N
forest
Like prefix dis- as a negative prefix, privative verbs is also weakly productive. Szymanek (1989: 299) writes that “the prefix de- derives privative verbs from a number of short, typically monosyllabic nouns”.
5. Review on Morphological Study
Morphology is defined as “the study of the internal structure of words” (Katamba, 1993: 5). Meanwhile, Matthews (1991: 3) defines morphology as the branch of linguistics which is “concerned with the ‘forms of words’ in different uses and constructions”. According to Matthews, there are four major subfields of linguistic theory: phonetics and phonology (one subfield which is “handled on two theoretical levels”), syntax, semantics and pragmatics, and morphology (1991:2).
The term “morphology” is derived from Greek, originated from the 19th century. It is parallel to German word Formenlehre, which means “the study of forms”. The word “morphology” first appeared in the Oxford English Dictionary
Based on the definitions above, a morphological study can be defined as a study related to the internal structure, forms, and constructions of words. Bybee (1985: 3) describes morphological study as a study concerned with the identification of morphemes. He adds “the traditional concern of morphological study has been the identification of morphemes: dividing words into parts and assigning meaning to the parts” (Bybee, 1985: 3). A morpheme is “the smallest units of language that combine both a form (the way they sound) and a meaning (what they mean)” (Fasold&Connor-Linton, 2006: 61). When there are words that cannot be easily divided into discrete parts (such as zero morphs), or morphemes that have different shapes when they occur in different environments, morphological studies “seek to offer means of describing these deviations from the one-to-one correspondence between sound and meaning” (Bybee, 1985: 3).
According to Matthews (1991: 12-18), the scope of morphological study covers three aspects of word structure. The first is inflection, the variation in the form of words for grammatical functions. For example, the use of the morpheme –s for plural inflection in birds or trees, the morpheme –ed for past tense and past participle in sailed. The second aspect is compound, the formation of a word by combining existing words. Some examples of compound words are whatever (what is itself a word; so is ever) and classroom. The third aspect is word-formation (some other sources call it derivation), the formation of a word from another word and morpheme(s). The new word has a new meaning, but is still related to the meaning of the old word. Some examples are undying (comprised of un-, die, and –ing), and
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Since the prefixes dis- and de-, which will be discussed in this study, are classified as derivational morphemes, this morphological study is focused on the third aspect of word structure, namely derivation.
6. Review on Prefix
dis-According to Webster’s Third New International Divtionary of English Language Unabridged (1981: 642), there are two entries of prefix dis. The first
dis-has four meanings. The first is “to do the opposite of: to reverse (a specified action)” as seen in the words disjoin and disqualify; “to deprive of (a specified character, quality, or rank)” as seen in the words disable and disprince; “to exclude or expel from” as seen in the words disbar and discastle. The second meaning is “opposite of: contrary of: absence of” as seen in the words disunion and disaffection. The third meaning is “not”, as seen in the words dishonest and disloyal. The fourth meaning is “completely”, as seen in the word disannul. This dis- is derived from Old French
des-, dis- and from Latin dis- which means apart, to pieces (1981: 642).
The second entry of dis- means “twice” or “double” as seen in the word
disazo which means ‘containing two azo groups in the molecule’. This prefix is influenced by Greek dis- “twicw”, “double” (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of English Language Unabridged, 1981: 642). Thus, the first and second entries of dis- are different morphemes altogether, and this study only discusses on the first dis-.
and privative. When forming negative adjectives, the prefix dis- is found in Latinate adjectives and serves as “a weakly productive negativizing element” (1989: 272). When forming reservative verbs, dis- is combined with verbs derived from Latinate and Romance bases, mostly beginning with a vowel, to express “the undoing of a previous state” (1989: 292-294). There are also a small number of verbs containing the prefix dis-, combined with nouns from Romance origin, to form privative verbs, meaning “to deprive of (something)” or “to free from (something)” (1989: 298). However, Quirk et al adds that there are derived words with the prefix dis- (and also with the prefix de-) that cannot be analyzed because they already had the prefixes when they adopted into English.
Both de- and dis- occur also in words that already had the prefixes when adopted into English; such cases they frequently have no meaning analyzable by ordinary users of English. E.g: depend, discern (Quirk et al, 1985: 1541)
Dis- is a prefix of Latinate origin. It entered the English vocabulary during the Middle English period in 1150-1500. The use of Germanic and Old English affixes to form new words had actually been a common practice since the Old English period (Baugh and Cable, 2002: 66). During the centuries following the Norman Conquest (1066-1204), Old English prefixes that had been much used previously, such as
for-and with-, experienced a decline in productivity, and were replaced by prefixes of Latin origin, including dis-.
The productive power which these formative elements once enjoyed has in many cases been transferred to prefixes like counter-, dis-, re-, trans-, and others of Latin origin” (Baugh and Cable, 2002: 181-182).
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language through two ways: directly from Latin and through French, the dominant language of the upper class during Norman settlement, as “the Latinized form of Old French des-,which was the popular phonetic development of Latin dis-” (Marchand, 1969: 158).
Onions (1966: 271) discusses that the prefix dis- appears “as a living prefix combined with words of no matter what origin”. In other words, the prefix
dis-remains productive until now.
7. Review on Prefix de-
According to Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of English Language Unabridged (1981: 579), the prefix de- has seven meanings. The first is “to do the opposite of: to reverse (a specified action)” as seen in the words decentralize
and decode; “reverse of” as seen in the word decalescence. The second meaning is “to remove (a specified thing, or specified things, from)” as seen in the words dehorn
The prefix de- is classified into reversative and privative prefixes. It can be attached to verbs and nouns (Quirk et al, 1985: 1541). Szymanek also classifies the usage of the prefix de- into reservative and privative. The reversative prefix de- is often attached to “de-adjectival, causative verbs in –ize”, for example the causative verb Christianize becomes reversative dechristianize. It is also occasionally attached to Latinate verbs in –ate and –ify, for example deactivate and declassify. He also adds that “base-forms of other types, i.e. ones which do not involve any of the typical causative suffixes (-ize, -ate, -ify) are very rare” (Szymanek, 1989: 295).
According to Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of English Language Unabridged, the prefix de- originated from Old French dé-, des-, partly from Latin de-, which means “down” or “away” (1981: 579). According to Marchand in The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation, the prefix de-
originated as a derivative morpheme in English “by the free adoption of French verbs”, meaning that the adoption of the prefix de- was influenced by loan words from French (1969: 153). The prefix de- has been existing since Middle English, for example the words deplume (first known in the year 1420), which was adapted from French word déplumer, and decipher (first known in 1528), from French déchiffrer
(1969: 155). In the 18th century, verbs using de- were very popular in French, which also affected English:
They [verbs using de-] found their way into English, where the pattern became very productive simultaneously with the rise and growth of the pattern in French (Marchand, 1969: 154).
Eventually, English began to adopt the derivational pattern, not the words. For example, French words désoxygener and désoxyder appear as deoxidize and
18
words; instead, the English language adopted the pattern using the prefix de-. The pattern was also used to coin new words in English, such as demoralize, demobilize,
denationalize, depolarize. Until now, the prefix de- is still productive.
C. Theoretical Framework
Since the main discussion of this study is the prefixes dis- and de-, the theory of affixation is really needed to identify the word formation of the derived words from those two prefixes. This theory of affixation becomes a base theory in analyzing the stems that the prefixes dis- and de- take. The theories on negative, reversative, and privative prefixes are also necessary in answering the first problem. Those theories are applied since the prefix dis- is classified into negative, reversative, and privative prefixes; and prefix de- is classified into reversative and privative prefixes. Therefore the theories are needed to identify the use of the prefixes dis- and de-; whether they are attached to nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs.
The theory of affixation is also necessary for answering the second problem. By using that theory, the derived words from the prefixes dis- and de- can be identified. The theories on negative, reversative, and privative prefixes are also necessary to identify the derived words; whether they are nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs, and to find out the meaning that the prefixes dis- and de- introduce.
19 A. Object of the Study
The object of this study is the English prefixes dis- and de-. Based on the Problem Formulation in Chapter I, this study focuses on the stems that the prefixes
dis- and de- take, the derived words with those two prefixes and the meaning they introduce, and the similarities and differences between those two prefixes.
The data needed for this study covers all the derived words with the prefixes
dis-and de-. Those data are taken from Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of English Language Unabridged (1981). The dictionary is chosen because it is more complete than any other dictionaries such as Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary of Current English or Collins Cobuild English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. Moreover, this dictionary is equipped with the etymology of each word. Therefore, the derived words from prefixes dis- and de-are easy to find.
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B. Method of the Study
This study is an empirical research since it relies on the primary data that are used. This is a morphological analysis because the analysis is based on the attachment of a morpheme to construct a word. This study identifies the stems that the prefixes
dis- and de- take, the derived words with those two prefixes and the meaning they introduce, as well as the differences between those two prefixes. Therefore, the data that is used are the analyzable derived words with the prefixes dis- and de- which are taken from Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of English Language Unabridged (1981).
C. Research Procedures
1. Data Collection
The data source for analyzing the stems that the prefixes dis- and de- take, the derived words with those two prefixes and the meaning they introduce, as well as the differences between those two prefixes was Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of English Language Unabridged (1981). The first thing that must be done in collecting the data was finding out all the words constructed from the prefixes
2. Selecting the Sample
Since there are 1410 analyzable derived words with the prefixes dis- and de-, a random sampling strategy is applied to this study. The primary data that are used are the random sample of every second word. This strategy is applied because it is believed that it is adequate to draw some valid conclusions. There are two steps done in selecting the sample. First, all the analyzable derived words with the prefixes
dis-and de- were listed by the order of alphabets. The list started with the prefixes
dis-and was followed by the prefixes de-. The second step was selecting the sample of every second word. The sample was started by a drawing; two pieces of paper with number 1 and 2 written on them were made and number 2 was drawn. Consequently, the random sample were started from the 2nd word, then 4th word, 6th, 8th,…..and so forth.
3. Data Analysis
22 CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS
This chapter discusses the stems that the prefixes dis- and de- take, the derived words with those two prefixes and the meaning they introduce, as well as the similarities and differences between those two prefixes.
A. The Stems that the Prefixes dis- and de- Take
This subchapter is divided into two sections. The first section is ‘The Stems that the Prefix dis- Takes’ and then is followed by ‘The Stems that the Prefix de-
Takes’.
1. The Stems that the Prefix dis- Takes
The prefix dis- can be attached to nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Table 1. The percentage of the root or stem that the prefix dis- takes
Root (R) /
Stem Number
Percentage (%)
N 165 46.47 V 116 32.67 A 47 13.23 Adv 27 7.60
The nouns that the prefix dis- takes as its stems are as the followings:
dis- + balance = disbalance
dis- + bar = disbar
dis- + belief = disbelief
dis- + comfort = discomfort
dis- + crown = discrown
dis- + figure = disfigure
dis- + guise = disguise
The prefix dis- may also be combined with derived noun with certain noun suffixes.
i. Suffix –ion
dis- + affection = disaffection dis- + inflation = disinflation
ii. Suffix –ship
dis- + fellowship = disfellowship
iii. Suffix -ation
dis- + palatalization = dispalatalization
iv. Suffix -ance
dis- + remembrance = disremembrance
v. Suffix -age
dis- + usage = disusage
However, there are many derived words with the prefix dis- combined with noun suffixes that, morphologically, have two possibilities of word-formation.
i. Suffix -ation
disaffirmation, could be:
dis- + affirmation = disaffirmation (or)
disaffirm + -ation = disaffirmation
disorganization, could be:
dis- + organization = disorganization (or)
disorganize + -ation = disorganization
ii. Suffix –ion
disinfection, could be:
dis- + infection = disinfection (or)
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disintegration, could be:
dis- + integration = disintegration (or)
disintegrate + -ion = disintegration
iii. Suffix –fication
disedification, could be:
dis- + edification = disedification (or) disedify + -ication = disedification
disunification, could be:
dis- + unification = disunification (or) disunify + -ication = disunification
iv. Suffix -ment
disemployment, could be:
dis- + employment = disemployment (or) disemploy + -ment = disemployment
disestablishment, could be:
dis- + establishment = disestablishment (or) disestablish + -ment = disestablishment
v. Suffix –ness
discontinuousness, could be:
dis- + continuousness = discontinuousness (or) discontinuous + -ness = discontinuousness
disquietness, could be:
dis- + quietness = disquietness (or) disquiet + -ness = disquietness
vi. Suffix -ty / -ity disloyalty, could be:
dis- + loyalty = disloyalty (or)
disagreeability, could be:
dis- + agreeability = agreeability (or)
disagreeable + -ity = disagreeability
vii. Suffix –ance
disappeareance, could be:
dis- + appearance = disappearance (or) disappear + -ance = disappearance
viii. Suffix –al
disapproval, could be:
dis- + approval = disapproval (or)
disapprove + -al = disapproval
The verbs that the prefix dis- takes as its stems are as follows:
dis- + continue = discontinue
dis- + incorporate = disincorporate
dis- + interest = disinterest
dis- + locate = dislocate
The prefix dis- may also be combined with the derived verbs with the prefix en- /
em-and the suffixes -ize, -en, and -fy / -ify.
dis- + embellish = disembelish
dis- + envenom = disenvenom
dis- + harmonize = disharmonize
dis- + pauperize = dispauperize
dis- + hearten = dishearten
dis- + qualify = disqualify
dis- + unify = disunify
Besides nouns and verbs, the prefix dis- can also be attached to adjectives. However, the number of adjectives that it takes as its stems is not high.
dis- + connected = disconnected
dis- + continuous = discontinuous
dis- + honorable = dishonorable
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dis- + infective = disinfective
dis- + passionate = dispassionate
dis- + respectful = disrespectful
Similar to the nouns, they, morphologically, also have two possibilities of word-formation.
disconnected could be disconnect + -ed discontinuous could be discontinue + -ous
dishonorable could be dishonor + -able disillusionary could be disillusion + -ary disinfective could be disinfect + -ive disrespectful could be disrespect + -ful
The prefix dis- can also be attached to adverbs since Quirk et al. writes that the prefix dis- “combines with open class items” (1985: 1540). Like the adjectives, the number of adverbs that the prefix dis- takes as its stems is also not high.
dis- + agreeably = disagreeably
dis- + approvingly = disapprovingly
dis- + honestly = dishonestly
dis- + trustfully = distrustfully
They, morphologically, also have two possibilities of word-formation.
disagreeably could be disagreeable + -ly disapprovingly could be disapproving + -ly dishonestly could be dishonest + -ly
distrustfully could be distrustful + -ly
2. The Stems that the Prefix de- Takes
The prefix de- can be attached to nouns, verbs, and adjectives. It cannot be attached to adverbs.
Table 2. The percentage of the root/stem that the prefix de- takes Root (R) /
Stem Number
Percentage (%)
The nouns that the prefix de- takes as its stems are as follows:
de- + ash = deash
de- + code = decode
de- + fusion = defusion
de- + lime = delime
de- + lint = delint
de- + polish = depolish
de- + rate = derate
de- + train = detrain
Like the prefix dis-, the prefix de- may also be combined with derived noun with several noun suffixes:
i. Suffix -ation
de- + realization = derealization de- + pigmentation = depigmentation
ii. Suffix -ion
de- + compensation = decompensation
iii. Suffix -fication
de- + zincification = dezincification
vi. Suffix -ism
de- + centralism = decentralism
However, there are also many derived words with the prefix de- combined with noun suffixes that, morphologically, have two possibilities of word-formation.
i. Suffix -ation
decentralization, could be:
de- + centralization = decentralization (or) decentralize + -ation = decentralization
dehumanization, could be:
de- + humanization = dehumanization (or)
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ii. Suffix -ion
deactivation, could be:
de- + activation = deactivation (or) deactivate + -ion = deactivation
decarboxylation, could be:
de- + carboxylation = decarboxylation (or) decarboxylate + -ion = decarboxylation
iii. Suffix -fication
dehumidification, could be:
de- + humidification = dehumidification (or)
dehumidify + -ication = dehumidification
dehumanization, could be:
de- + emulsification = demulsification (or)
demulsify+ -ication = demulsification
The verbs that the prefix de- takes as its stems are as follows:
de- + embarrass = debarrass
de- + form = deform
de- + mount = demount
de- + pose = depose
de- + restrict = derestrict
Besides the verbs above, the prefix de- is often attached to derived verbs with suffix
–ize.
de- + carbonize = decarbonize
de- + classicize = declassicize
de- + ethicize = de-ethicize
de- + naturalize = denaturalize
It can also be attached to derived verbs with suffixes –fy / -ify and –ate, mainly in scientific use. Yet, they are less numerous.
de- + gasify = degasify
de- + Nazify = denazify
de- + accelerate = decelerate
de- + sublimate = desublimate
Besides nouns and verbs, the prefix de- also takes adjectives as its stems. However, the number of the adjectives that it takes is low.
de- + bitter = debitter
de- + mean = demean
de- + nominal = denominal
de- + substantival = desubstantival
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that the prefix dis- occurs with nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs as its stems. Meanwhile, the prefix de- only takes nouns, verbs, and adjectives as its stems. It cannot be attached to adverbs.
B. The Derived Words with the Prefixes dis- and de- and Their Meaning
This subchapter is also divided into two sections. The first section is ‘The Derived Words with the Prefix dis- and Its Meaning’ and the second is ‘The Derived Words with the Prefix de- and Its Meaning’. Each section is still divided into two parts. The first section is divided into ‘The Derived Words with the Prefix dis-‘and ‘The Meaning of the Prefix dis-’. The second section is divided into ‘The Derived Words with the Prefix de-‘and ‘The Meaning of the Prefix de-‘.
1. The Derived Words with the Prefix dis- and Its Meaning a. The Derived Words with the Prefix
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Table 3. The percentage of the derived words with the prefix
dis-Root (R) /
Stem The derived word Number Percentage (%)
N N 122 34.36
N V 36 10.14
N (R) A 5 1.40
N (R) Adv 2 0.56
V V 90 25.35
V (R) N 14 3.94
V (R) A 7 1.97
V (R) Adv 5 1.40
A A 43 12.11
A (R) N 4 1.12
Adv Adv 27 7.60
When the prefix dis- is attached to nouns, it produces nouns and verbs.
dis- + balance = disbalance (N)
dis- + bar = disbar (V)
dis- + belief = disbelief (N)
dis- + comfort = discomfort (N)
dis- + crown = discrown (V)
dis- + figure = disfigure (V)
dis- + guise = disguise (V)
dis- + spirit = dispirit (V)
From the above examples, it can be seen that the prefix dis- forms new nouns and verbs. It can be concluded that the prefix dis- changes the part of speech of the derived words.
When the prefix dis- is combined with the noun derived from noun suffixes, it also results in nouns.
dis- + affection = disaffection (N)
dis- + inflation = disinflation (N)
dis- + fellowship = disfellowship (N)
dis- + palatalization = dispalatalization (N)
dis- + remembrance = disremembrance (N)
dis- + usage = disusage (N)
dis- + affirmation = disaffirmation (N)
dis- + organization = disorganization (N)
dis- + integration = disintegration (N)
dis- + edification = disedification (N)
dis- + unification = disunification (N)
dis- + employment = disemployment (N)
dis- + establishment = disestablishment (N)
dis- + continuousness = discontinuousness (N)
dis- + quietness = disquietness (N)
dis- + loyalty = disloyalty (N)
dis- + agreeability = disappearance (N)
dis- + approval = disapproval (N)
For the formation of word disauxiny, the prefix dis- is not attached to auxiny or
disauxin + -y but the prefix dis- is combined with the suffix –y to coin new word.
dis- + auxin + -y = disauxiny (N)
The words *disauxin or * auxiny do not exist. Probably, once disauxin or auxiny
existed. However, now, only the meaning of the disauxiny that is needed. Therefore, only disauxiny still exists until now.
When the prefix dis- is attached to verbs, it forms new verbs.
dis- + continue = discontinue (V)
dis- + incorporate = disincorporate (V)
dis- + interest = disinterest (V)
dis- + locate = dislocate (V)
dis- + embellish = disembelish (V)
dis- + envenom = disenvenom (V)
dis- + harmonize = disharmonize (V)
dis- + pauperize = dispauperize (V)
dis- + hearten = dishearten (V)
dis- + qualify = disqualify (V)
dis- + unify = disunify (V)
When combined with the past participle of the verb, the prefix dis- results in adjectives.
dis- + appointed (past participle of appoint) = disappointed (A)
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[dis- + figure (N)] (V) + -ment = disfigurement (N)
[dis- + mast (N)] (V) + -ment = dismastment (N)
[dis- + spirit (N)] (V) + -ment = dispiritment (N)
[dis- + band (V)] (V) + -ment = disbandment (N)
[dis- + enable (V)] (V) + -ment = disenablement (N)
[dis- + guise (N)] (V) + -er = disguiser (N)
[dis- + locate (V)] (V) + -or = dislocator (N)
[dis- + claim (V)] (V) + -ant = disclaimant (N)
[dis- + guise (N)] (V) + -able = disguisable (A)
[dis- + cover (V)] (V) + -able = discoverable (A)
[dis- + courage (N)] (V) + -ing = discouraging (A)
[dis- + spirit (N)] (V) + -ing = dispirit (A)
[dis- + appoint (V)] (V) + -ing = disappointing (A)
However, there is no exact rule about when the derived verbs could be combined with the noun or adjective suffixes. For example, English has dismastment and
dispiritment but it does not have *discardment ([dis- + card (N)] (V) + -ment) or
*dishornment ([dis- + horn (N)] (V) + -ment).
When attached to adjectives, dis- also forms new adjectives.
dis- + connected = disconnected (A)
dis- + continuous = discontinuous (A)
dis- + honorable = dishonorable (A)
dis- + illusionary = disillusionary (A)
dis- + infective = disinfective (A)
dis- + passionate = dispassionate (A)
dis- + respectful = disrespectful (A)
Certain derived adjectives with the prefix dis- may also be combined with noun suffix
–ness and adverb suffix –ly. There is no exact rule either about when the derived verbs could be combined with the suffixes.
[dis- + advantage (N) + -ous] (A) + -ness =disadvantageousnes (A)
[dis- + courage (N) + -ing] (A) + -ness = discouragingness (A)
[dis- + color (N) + -ed] (A) + -ness = discoloredness (A)
[dis- + locate (V) + -ed] (A) + -ness = dislocatedness (A)
[dis- + concert (V) + -ing] (A) + -ness = disconcertingness (A)
[dis- + loyal (A)] (A) + -ist = disloyalist (A)
[dis- + courage (N)] (V) + -ed + -ly = discouragedly (Adv)
[dis- + figure (N)] (V) + -ing + -ly = disfiguringly (Adv)
[dis- + arm (N) + -ing] (A) + -ly = disarmingly (Adv)
[dis- + believe (V) + -ing] (A) + -ly = disbelievingly (Adv)
[dis- + order (V) + -ed] (A) + -ly = disorderedly (Adv)
[dis- + temper (V) + -ed] (A) + -ly = distemperedly (Adv)
The derived adjectives with the prefix dis- combined with suffix –ous are usually combined with the noun suffix –ness. Yet, not all derived adjectives with the prefix
dis- combined with the suffixes -ed and –ing can be combined with suffix –ness since there are no words *disaccustomedness ([dis- + accustom (V) + -ed] (A) + -ness),
*discomposedness ([dis- + compose (V) + -ed] (A) + -ness), *disappointingness ([dis- + appoint (V) + -ing] (A) + -ness). Basically, almost all the derived adjectives can be attached to the suffix –ly. Yet, it is also not certain since there are no words
*disaccustomedly ([dis- + accustom (V) + -ed] (A) + -ly), *discoloredly ([dis- + color (N) + -ed] (A) + -ly).
Like when attached to verbs and adjectives, the prefix dis- also results in adverbs when it takes adverbs as its stems.
dis- + agreeably = disagreeably (Adv)
dis- + approvingly = disapprovingly (Adv)
dis- + honestly = dishonestly (Adv)
dis- + trustfully = distrustfully (Adv)
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that the prefix dis- changes not only the meaning but also the part of speech of the derived words
b. The Meaning of the Prefix dis-
34
the opposite of: to reverse (a specified action)”; “to deprive of (a specified character, quality or rank)”; “to exclude or expel from”, as seen in the following:
dis- + continue (‘to be steadfast or constant in a course or activity’) =
discontinue (‘to break the continuity of something’)
dis- + quite (‘to put a rest by freeing the fact or ownership from dispute or question’) = disquiet (‘to take away the peace, rest, easy frame of mind, or normal relaxation of by disturbing, stirring up, making restless or uneasy, or alarming’)
dis- + crown (‘a reward or victory or mark of honor’) = discrown (‘to deprive of a crown’)
dis- + hearten (‘to give heart to: inspire with fresh zeal, hope or courage’) =
dishearten (‘to deprive of courage and hope’)
dis- + bar (‘court’) = disbar (‘to expel from the bar or the legal profession’) The meaning “to do the opposite of: to reverse (a specified action)” occurs when the prefix dis- is attached to a verb, the meaning “to deprive of (a specified character, quality or rank)” occurs when the prefix dis- is attached to a noun, that changes into a verb after the attachment, and a verb, while the meaning “to exclude or expel from” occurs when the prefix dis- is attached to a noun, that changes into a verb after the attachment.
The second meaning of the prefix dis- is “opposite of: contrary of: absence of.” The meaning occurs when the prefix dis- is attached to a noun. The examples are as follows:
dis- + comfort (‘something that gives or brings comfort’) = discomfort
(‘something that causes sorrow or distress’)
dis- + affection (‘the state of being affected’) = disaffection (‘the state of being disaffected’)
dis- + establishment (‘the act of establishing something or the state of being established’) = disestablishment (‘the act of disestablishing something or the state of being disestablished’)
dis- + connected (‘joined or linked together’) = disconnected (‘not connected’)
dis- + continuous (‘characterized by uninterrupted extension in space, time, or sequence’) = discontinuous (‘not continuous’)
The fourth meaning of the prefix dis- is “completely” that occurs when attached to a verb. It can be seen in the following:
dis- + annul (‘to cause to cease to exist’) = disannul (‘to annul completely’) Besides the above meaning, the prefix dis- still has other meanings.
dis- + balance (‘equality between the totals of the two sides of an account’) =
disbalance (‘lack of balance’)
dis- + faith (‘belief and trust in and loyalty to God’) = disfaith (‘lack of faith’)
dis- + credit (‘reputation especially when favorable: good name’) = discredit
(‘loss of credit or reputation’)
dis- + grace (‘a special favor from a person in power’) = disgrace (‘loss of grace, favor, or honor’)
From the above examples, when attached to a noun, the prefix dis- can mean “lack of: loss of.”
The prefix dis- also has meanings “to remove (something) from“; “to deprive of (something)”; “to free from: to divest of”, as seen in the following:
dis- + horn (‘one of the paired bony processes that arise from the upper part of the head of many ungulate mammals’) = dishorn (‘to remove the horns from’)
dis- + leaf (‘the leaves of trees or plants’) = disleaf (‘to remove the leaves from’)
dis- + crown (‘ a reward of victory or mark of honor’) = discrown (‘to deprive of a crown’)
dis- + embellish (‘to make beautiful or elegant with ornaments or ornamentations’) = disembellish (‘to deprive of adornment’)
dis- + illusion (‘a misleading image presented to the vision’) = disillusion (‘to free from or deprive of illusion’)
dis- + envenom (‘to taint or impregnate with venom: make poisonous’) =
disenvenom (‘to free from venom’)
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dis- + robe (‘a long loose outer garment cut in flowing lines and used for ordinary wear by men and women’) = disrobe (‘to divest of a robe: to remove the clothing from’)
dis- + interest (‘to involve the interest or welfare of’) = disinterest (‘to divest of interest or interested motives’)
The prefix dis- means “to remove (something) from“when attached to a noun that changes into a verb after the attachment. Meanwhile, the meaning “to deprive of (something)”; “to free from; to divest of” occurs when it is attached to a noun, that changes into a verb after the attachment, and a verb.
It can also mean “to reduce: to make lower” when attached to a noun, that change into a verb after the attachment, and a verb. The examples are as follows:
dis- + grade (‘a position or level in a course or advancement or decline or in a scale of ranks, qualities, or orders’) = disgrade (‘to lower in rank, grade, or status: to reduce from a higher to a lower rank or from a position or dignity or privilege’)
dis- + rate (‘reckoned value’) = disrate (‘to reduce to lower rating, rank, or class’)
dis- + count (‘to include in tallying and reckoning’) = discount (‘to deduct especially from an account, debt, or charge’)
When attached to an adjective, the prefix dis- also means “lacking”, “free from”, and “tending”, that can be seen in the following:
dis- + honorable (‘deserving honor’) = dishonorable (‘lacking honor: not honorable: serving or tending dishonor’)
dis- + respectful (‘full of respect’) = disrespectful (‘lacking proper respect in speech or action’)
dis- + passionate (‘dominated by strong emotion’) = dispassionate (‘free from the influence of passion or strong feeling’)
dis- + illusionary (‘of, relating to, marked by, or producing illusion’) =
disillusionary (‘constituting or tending to induce disillusion’)
dis- + infective (‘producing infection: able to produce infection’) =
disinfective (‘serving or tending disinfect’)
dis- + approvingly (‘in a approving manner’) = disapprovingly (‘in a disapproving manner’)
dis- + honorably (‘in a honorable manner) = dishonorably (‘in a dishonorable manner’)
From the above discussion, it can be identified that according to Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of English Language Unabridged (1981), when attached to a verb, the prefix dis-means “to do the opposite of: to reverse (a specified action)” and “completely”. When attached to noun, it means “opposite of: contrary of: absence of”. The meaning “to deprive of (a specified character, quality or rank)” occurs when the prefix dis- is attached to a noun, that changes into a verb after the attachment, and a verb. Meanwhile, the meaning “to exclude or expel from” only occurs when the prefix dis- is attached to a noun, that changes into a verb after the attachment. When attached to an adjective, the prefix dis- means “not”.
Besides the above meaning, the prefix dis- still has other meanings. When attached to a noun, that changes into a verb after the attachment, and a verb, the prefix dis- can also mean “to remove (something) from“; “to deprive of (something)”; “to free from; to divest of”, and “to reduce: to make lower”. When attached to an adjective, it also means “lacking”, “free from”, and “tending”. When attached to an adverb, the prefix dis- also means “opposite of; contrary of”.
2. The Derived Words with the Prefix de- and Its Meaning a. The Derived Words with the Prefix
38
Table 4. The percentage of the derived words with the prefix
de-Root (R) /
Stem The derived word Number Percentage (%)
N N 118 33.71
N V 60 17.14
N (R) A 3 0.85
N (R) Adv 2 0.57
V V 86 24.57
V (R) N 36 10.28
V (R) A 19 5.24
V (R) Adv 4 1.14
A A 10 2.83
A (R) V 6 1.69
A (R) N 5 1.41
A (R) Adv 1 0.28
Similar to the prefix dis-, the prefix de- also forms new nouns and verbs when it is attached to nouns. It can also be concluded that the prefix de- changes the part of speech of the derived words.
de- + ash = deash (V)
de- + code = decode (V)
de- + lime = delime (V)
de- + lint = delint (V)
de- + polish = depolish (N)
de- + rate = derate (V)
de- + train = detrain (V)
When the prefix de- is combined with the nouns derived from noun suffixes, it also results in nouns.
de- + realization = derealization (N)
de- + pigmentation = depigmentation (N)
de- + compensation = decompensation (N
de- + zincification = dezincification (N)
de- + centralism = decentralism (N)
de- + centralization = decentralization (N)
de- + humanization = dehumanization (N)
de- + activation = deactivation (N)
de- + carboxylation = decarboxylation (N)
de- + humidification = dehumidification (N)
