CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1.Contrastive Analysis Theory
Ridwan (1998:8) states that contrastive analysis is a method of linguistics
which tries to describe, prove and analyze the differences and similarities
between two languages compared. Tarigan(1992 : 4) states,” Analisis
Kontrastif adalah aktivitas atau kegiatan yang mencoba membandingkan
struktur bahasa pertama (B1) dengan bahasa kedua (B2) untuk
mengidentifikasi perbedaan – perbedaan di antara kedua bahasa.” Based on
the statements above, it can be said that contrastive analysis is to compare the
structure of source language and target language to identify the differences
both languages.
Tarigan (1992 : 4) also states that contrastive analysis was developed
and practiced in 1950s and 1960s as a structural linguistics applied in language
study and based on these assumptions :
a. The main difficulties in studying new language caused by the interference of
source language.
b. The difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis.
c. The teaching materials can utilize contrastive analysis to reduce the effects of
interferences. Contrastive analysis is more success in phonology than other
According to Naibaho (2006 : 21 ) in general, the result of contrastive
analyisis is expected ;
1. To show, at least in theoretical framework, the similarities of two languages as:
a. features that characterize natural language; i.e language universal
b. similarities of languages compared particularly if these languages are related
known as inter language similarities.
2. To give a detailed description of the differences between languages compared.
3. To establish a linguistically hierarchy of difficulties.
Based on the theories mentioned above it can be concluded that contrastive
analysis is part of linguistics which concerns in finding out the similarities and the
differences between two or more languages.
Hanafiah (2007 :17) states that,” Analisis kontrastif mengacu pada
korespondensi antara aspek – aspek dalam bahasa yang dibandingkan.” This
means that contrastive analysis refers to the correspondences between the
languages contrasted. This can help the writer to contrast the vowel and consonant
phonemes in English and Toba Batak language.
Seaton (1982:115) states that, “Contrastive Linguistic is the scientific
description of the similarities and differences between two or more languages and
the speaker of one language will have in learning another.” Crystal (1992: 83)
states, “Contrastive Linguistic is the identification of points of structural similarity
2.2.Definition of Phonology
Phonology is a branch of linguistics that talks about language
sounds.Phonologyis the aspect of language concerned with the rules governing
the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of
syllables. Phonology is the study of phones or speech sounds(Ramelan 1999 :
1). The goal of phonology is to comprehend the system of rules that speaker
uses in apprehending and manipulating the sounds of her language (Hayes
2009 : 1).These are things which can be analyized such as (1) Articulation ,(2)
The process of speech sound , (3) Vowel and Consonant Phoneme, (4)
Cluster Phoneme and Diphtong, (5) The change of Phoneme, (6) Uptake
Phoneme, (7) Ortography, (8)Ambiguity in the pronounciation of phonemes. In
this analysis, the writer only analyzes Vowel and Consonant Phoneme.
Roca (1999 : 3) states that phonology is the study of linguistically
signifcant sound patterns, that is of the organization of the sounds of
speech.” The sounds that we produce when we speak also need to be
powered by air from the lungs.In fact, the physical act of speaking can
be likened to “playing” our mouths and larynxes withh the air coming
out of the lungs through the windpipe linking the lungs to the mouth
technically known as the “trachea”. Phonology is concerned with the
lexical (or underlying ) level with the level.
2.3. Definition of Phoneme
contrastive unit. For instance, the words think and think have different meaning
because there is sound changing or different pronounciation in each word.
Phoneme is devided into two, they are segmental phoneme and
suprasegmental phoneme. Segmental phoneme is phoneme consisting of sound
segments such as the consonant, the vowel, and semivowel sounds of a
language. Suprasegmental phoneme is relating to significant features ( as
stress, pitch, or juncture) that occur simultaneously with vowels and
consonants in an utterance.
2.3.1. Vowel
Basically, a vowel is any “open” sound where there is no obstruction or
“blocking” caused by teeth, lips, tongue, palate, or other articulators. In the
English alphabet, there are five vowels such as a, i, u, e, o. However, there are
many more vowel sounds in the English language. For instance, when you put
two “e” letters together like in “ speed” (/spi:d/), you get a long vowel sound
/i:/.
Abercrombie (1967 : 39 ) states that,” The basis of the syllable is the
sudden brief contraction of the respiratory muscles, and this contraction
expels a small amount of air from the lungs.” The air so expelled needs
for its escape to the outer air a relatively free and unrestricted passage
through the vocal tract, and it is this moment of list restriction in the
sequence of movements that make up the syllable that sis the vowel.
vocal tract are shaped so that the passage of the air is hindered. A
vowel is the nucleus or central part of the syllable.
2.3.2. Consonant
Consonant is sound where there is obstruction or “blocking” of the airflow
caused by lips, teeth, tongue, palate or even deep down in larynx.
Abercrombie (1967: 39) states that,” A consonant is a marginal part,
associated with the beginning and ending of the movement of air
engendered by the pulse.” The stream of air expelled by the
chest-pulse can be both released and arrested by accessory articulatory
movements. These movements produce the consonants of the syllable.
A consonant at the end of a syllable is a movements of the
articulatory organs which so constricts the vocal tract that the passage of
air is cut down or stopped. It thus brings the syllable to an end ; it is
an arresting or closing movements. Thus in the word cease the -se
constricts the vocal tract, and ctus down the passage through it of the
air stream.This –se part of the syllable is called an arresting consonant.
A consonant at the beginning of a syllable releases the movement
of air engendered by the chest-pulse. It constricts the vocal tract as an
arresting consonant does, and it constricts it at the moment when the
initiator makes the sudden movement of the chest – pulse so that the air
cease, the c- acts in this manner, and is therefore called a releasing
consonant.
2.4.English
English is a language used in many countries, such as America, England,
and Australia, and it is also regonized as the international language. Therefore,
English has become the most popular language and widely used all over the world
among many different countries. In this study, the writer uses American English
as the object. American English, or United States (U.S.) English, is the set
of
2.5.Toba Batak Language
Toba Batak Language is one of ethnic groups’ languages in Indonesia.
This language is used by people in Sumatera Utara, especially in the area of
Toba Lake such as Samosir, Toba Samosir,and Tapanuli Utara. In this study,
the writer uses Toba Batak Language spoken in Tapanuli Utara as the subject
