A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF USING VERBAL
REINFORCEMENT AND TOKEN REINFORCEMENT
TO ENHANCE THE STUDENTS’ ENGLISH
LEARNING ACVIEVEMENT
(In Case of Seventh Year Students of Pre-International Class Students of
SMP Negeri 21 Semarang in the Academic Year of 2008/2009)
a final project
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Sarjana Pendidikan
in English
by
Andika Farid Abdillah 2201405512
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF LANGUAGES AND ARTS
SEMARANG STATE UNIVERSITY
APPROVAL
Boards of examiners of the English Department of the Languages and Arts Faculty of Semarang State University approved this Final Project on August, 2009
Board of examiners
1. Chairman
Prof. Dr. Rustono
NIP 131281222 _____________________
2. Secreatary
Dr. Dwi Anggani LB, M.Pd
NIP 131813665 ____________________
3. First Examiner
Drs. Amir Sisbiyanto, M.Pd
NIP 131281220 _____________________
4. Second Examiner/First Advisor Drs. Hartoyo, M.A, Ph.D
NIP 131876216 _____________________
5. Third Examiner/Second Advisor Dr. Dwi Rukmini, M.Pd
NIP 130529839 _____________________
Approved by
The Dean of the Languages and Arts Faculty
Dengan ini saya:
Nama : ANDIKA FARID ABDILLAH
NIM : 2201405512
Prodi/Jurusan : Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris/Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris FBS UNNES (S1)
menyatakan dengan sesungguhnya bahwa final project yang berjudul
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF USING VERBAL REINFORCEMENT AND TOKEN REINFORCEMENT TO ENHANCE THE STUDENTS’ ENGLISH
LEARNING ACHIEVEMENT
yang saya tulis dalam rangka memenuhi salah satu syarat memperoleh gelar sarjana ini benar-benar merupakan karya saya sendiri yang saya hasilkan setelah melalui penelitian, pembimbingan, diskusi dan pemaparan/ujian. Semua kutipan, baik yang langsung maupun tidak langsung, baik yang diperoleh dari sumber kepustakaan, wawancara elektronik, wawancara langsung, maupun sumber lainnya, telah disertai keterangan mengenai identitas sumbernya dengan cara sebagaimana yang lazim dalam penulisan karya ilmiah. Dengan demikian, walaupun tim penguji dan pembimbing penulisan final project ini membubuhkan tanda tangan sebagaimana keabsahannya, seluruh karya ilmiah ini tetap menjadi tanggung jawab saya sendiri. Jika kemudian hari ditemukan ketidakberesan, saya bersedia menerima akibatnya.
Demikian, harap pernyataan ini dapat dipergunakan seperlunya.
Semarang, 13 Juni 2009
Yang membuat pernyataan
Andika Farid Abdillah
To
My beloved parents
My beloved lecturers
and
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Allah SWT, God the Almighty for the blessing and ease given to me in completing my final project this mid of the year. Many people have parts in the work I do as a researcher. They make my work possible and enjoyable.
Then, I would also like to express my appreciation to all of my lecturers in the English department, especially to my two supervised lecturers, Drs. Hartoyo, M.A., Ph.D. as my first advisor and Dr. Dwi Rukmini, M.Pd. as my second advisor for giving me continues guidance as well as advice and valuable suggestions given to me in finishing this final project.
My gratitude also goes to my beloved parents, family, and friends, especially to Adhi Nugraha my best friend ever and the Genk Rame members; Isna, Yozi, Anis and also Yesi for untiring affection, supports and continues prayers.
I realize that this final project has a lot of shortcomings. Therefore, suggestion and criticism are always needed for betterment.
At last, I hope this final project will be very useful for all readers especially for the teacher and students of English who want to apply the result of my research.
Semarang, June 2009
Reinforcement and Token Reinforcement to enhance the Students’ English Achievement. Skripsi, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Bahasa dan Seni, Universitas Negeri Semarang. Drs. Hartoyo, M.A, Ph.D., Dr. Dwi Rukmini, M.Pd.
Keywords: verbal reinforcement, token reinforcement, punishment
This final project is based on a study which attempted to examine the comparison of the students’ English achievement who were taught by using verbal reinforcement and those who were taught by using token reinforcement. The main purpose of the study was to determine which group had better English achievement after they were given two types of different reinforcement; verbal and token.
The research was conducted in the Pre-International Class in SMP Negeri 21 Semarang, grade VII, academic year of 2008/2009. The first group was taught by using token reinforcement and the second group was taught by using verbal reinforcement.
In achieving the objective, the researcher concerned with the quantitative research. Therefore, quantitative methods were used in analyzing the data. The researcher drew samples by using non-random sampling technique. The researcher gathered the data by conducting pre-test, observation of the treatments and in the end conducting the post-test.
In chapter 4, the result indicated that the students who were taught by using token reinforcement got better achievement (26.1) than those who were taught by using verbal reinforcement (23.4). From the computation the researcher found that the result of the “t” test was 4,06. It means that the two means are significantly different. Therefore, the researcher’s hypothesis is accepted and the null hypothesis is rejected. Thus, both types of reinforcement have a very important role in achieving good students’ achievement during the teaching and learning interaction in the classroom. The researcher concludes that the difference on students’ achievement scores is related to the treatment given during the teaching and learning process. Both reinforcements are basically good to increase the students’ motivation that later on will affect their achievement during the teaching and learning process. The students who were taught by using token reinforcement got better achievement than those who were taught by using verbal reinforcement. The higher achievement in the token group indicates that the use of token reinforcement will affect students’ better achievement.
TABLE OF CONTENT
Acknowledgement. ... v
Abstract.. ... vi
Table of Content... vii
List of Tables. ... ix
List of Appendices ... x
Chapter I. INTRODUCTION. ... 1
1.1. Background of the Study... 1
1.2. Statement of the Problems. ... 3
1.3. Objective of the Study... 3
1.4. Hypothesis... 3
1.5. Significance of the Study... ... 4
1.6. Outline of the Study... ... 5
II. REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE... 7
2.1. The Nature of EFL Classroom ... 7
2.2. Classroom Students-Teacher Interaction ... 8
2.2. Reinforcement and Students’ Achievement... 9
2.3. Definition of Reinforcement.. ... 10
2.4. Reinforcement Theory ... 11
2.4.1. Reinforcement.. ... 12
2.4.2. Punishment... 12
2.4.3. Extinction ... 13
2.5. The Use of Reinforcement in the Classroom. ... 13
2.5.1. The Main Form of Reinforcement.. ... 14
2.5.2. The Types of Positive Reinforcement... 15
3.1.1. Quantitative Method ... 21
3.1.2. Experimental Method... 22
3.1.3. Variables.. ... 23
3.2. Population and Sample... 24
3.3. Research Instruments. ... 26
3.4. Procedures of Collecting Data ... 27
3.5. Try-Out Item Analysis.. ... 28
3.5.1. Level of Difficulty... 28
3.5.2. Discriminating Power. ... 30
3.6. Analysis of the Instrument.. ... 31
3.6.1. Validity of the Test ... 32
3.6.2. Reliability of the Test... 34
3.7. Analysis of the Final Result. ... 36
IV. DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION. ... 37
4.1. Observation Process and Data Collection .. ... 37
4.2. Data Analysis.. ... 39
4.3. Discussion.. ... 48
V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION... 58
5.1. Conclusion. ... 58
5.2. Suggestion. ... 60
BIBLIOGRAPHY... ... 62
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. The Table of Frequency Range .. ... 42
Table 2. The Classification of students’ score on the test... 43
Table 3. QuestionnaireData in the Token Group. ... 51
Appendix 1
List of Students in the Try Out List of Students in the Token Group List of Students in the Verbal Group Appendix 2
The computation of the Validity, Reliability, Difficulty Level and Discriminating Power
The computation of validity
The computation of difficulty level The computation of discriminating power The computation of Reliability
Appendix 3
Data Analysis
The Percentage of the Test
The Rank of Students in the Token Group The Rank of Students in the Verbal Group Normality and Homogeneity Measurements Independent Sample Test between Two Groups The “t” Table
The Table of “r” Product-Moment
Appendix 4
The Try-Out Questions Sheet The Answer Sheet
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1.
Background of the Study
Although English is not the language with the target number of native/first language speakers, it has become a lingua franca. A lingua franca can be defined as a language widely adopted for communication between two speakers whose native languages are different from each other’s and where one or both speakers are using it as a “second” language.
Children are motivated because they are rewarded because they perceive the value (reward) as reinforcement. Education is concerned with educating the whole person to enables him or her to meet the demands of a world of continuous and unpredictable change. This involves an ability to think to solve problems and deal thoughtfully with unpredictable demands, as well as developing the whole person. Learning on the other hand involves the acquisition of a particular skill which is useful in the here and now, or knowledge. The important point is that our personal philosophy and the beliefs that we hold about educating people will influence our practices in teacher education. But, the link between theory and practice is currently a thorny issue in teacher education, and there is considerable variation in the way these concepts and the relationship between them is perceived.
It is accepted for most fields of learning including English that motivation is essential to success. At its most basic level, motivation is some kind of internal drive, which pushes someone to do things in order to achieve something (Harmer, 2003). As H Douglas Brown points out, a cognitive view of motivation includes factors such as the need of exploration, activity, stimulation, new knowledge, and ego enchantment.
3
1.2.
Statement of the Problems
The researcher wants to compare is there any difference in using token reinforcement and verbal reinforcement affect to the students’ achievement in Learning English of the Grade VII of SMP 21 Semarang Year 2008/2009.
1. Is there any difference of the students achievement taught by using verbal reinforcement and the students who are taught by using token reinforcement?
2. Which group of students is better in achieving reading skill score after learning English?
1.3.
Objective of the Study
The researcher conducted this research in order to:
1. To compare which group of students is achieved better after they were given two types of different reinforcement; verbal and token. 2. To find out what are the advantages of using verbal and token
reinforcement to increase the student achievement.
1.4. Hypothesis
1.5.
Significance of the Study
The result of this research is hopefully to be very useful, especially to the English teacher who teach in junior high school and to the reader who are attracted to the comparative study on using reinforcement, generally.
1). For the English teachers:
The teacher needs to employ a variety of techniques when applying those two different skill of using verbal reinforcement and token reinforcement. The teacher should establish what patterns of reinforcement will be effective with students taking into consideration the age and the ability of the class. The teacher are hoped to employ the best type of reinforcement in order to achieve their goals. So, by reading and studying this research they can know which type of reinforcement has immediate effect to the students achievement.
2). For the readers:
5
1.6.
Assumption of the Study
Based on the researcher opinion, junior high school students who are taught by using token reinforcement explicitly will gain significantly better achievement than the students who are taught by using verbal reinforcement.
1.7.
Scope of the Study
The scope of this research is:
1. Variable
The variables used in this study are:
a. Token and verbal reinforcement used to the students by the teacher as independent variable.
b. Students’ achievement as the dependent variable.
2. Location and Population
1.8.
Outline of the Study
This report of the study is divided into five chapters. Chapter I is the introduction which contains the background of the study, the statement of problems, the objectives of the study, the hypothesis of the study, the significance of the study, the assumption of the study, the scope of the study, and the outline of the study.
In the chapter II, the researcher gave some review of the related literature from some sources such as books, previous research, internet download concerning about the theory of reinforcement, student’s motivation, the teacher’s role and the teacher and student process of communication.
The third part of this study report is the chapter III. This chapter includes the research design, the research location, the subject of the study, the techniques of collecting data, and the techniques of data analyzing.
In the chapter IV, the researcher discussed about the research findings as the result of the classroom tests and observation.
7
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1.
Classroom Students-Teacher Interaction
It can also be said that a good communication between the teacher and the students in the classroom is important to make a good teaching and learning situation and finally the learning goals will be achieved.
In order for a learning situation to actually promote learning, teachers must do more than loosely organize a set of learning tasks and hope for the best. At a minimum, the teacher must identify to his or her own satisfaction what the learning tasks are designed to accomplish. The teacher must also identify to the satisfaction of his or her students what the learning tasks demands in the way of individual behavior (Thomas Hurt, 1978: 33)
Based on the statement above, communication teachers and students define, in part, the learning situation. The teacher must communicate to his or her students precisely what the learning tasks demands of them so that they know what they have to achieve during the teaching and learning process, in addition the students can feel so much fun during the process.
2.2. Reinforcement
and Students’ Achievement
9
attention, encouragement and approval, or token reinforcement where points, stars, ticks, plastic chips or other exchangeable items are used as reinforces. Some research shows that where student effort warrants and results in specific praise being given, this has positive effect on subsequent student achievement. But, Brophy (1981) argues “that trivial, inappropriate and too frequent teacher use of verbal reinforcement is largely ineffective in increasing student involvement or achievement. While Turney (1983: 23) states that “the use of token reinforcement in the classroom can be powerful aid to the teacher in fostering student achievement. However, when assessing suitable forms of token reinforcement, the teacher must be mindful of the age and characteristic of individual students and classes. Kennedy and Willcutt (1964: 331) concluded that, “praise has been found generally to have a facilitating effect on the performance of school children” while “blame has been found generally to have a debilitating effect”.
2.3.
Definition of Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, reinforcement is an increase in the strength of a response following the charge in environment immediately following that response (Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia). Response strength can be assessed by measure such as the frequency with which the response is made.
“Pavlov himself called all events which strength behavior reinforcement and all the resulting changes ‘conditioning’. In the Pavlovian experiment, however, a reinforcers is paired with a stimulus; whereas in operant conditioning behavior it is contigent upon the response.”
The environment change contingent upon the response is called reinfocers. Reinforcement can only be confirmed retrospectively, as objects, items, food or other potential reinforcers can only be called such demonstrating increases in behavior after their administration. The element of reward plays a substantial part in our everyday lives.
2.4. Reinforcement
Theory
Reinforcement theory is the process of shaping behavior by controlling the consequences of the behavior. In reinforcement theory a combination of rewards and/or punishment is used to reinforce desired behavior or extinguish behavior. Any behavior that elicits a consequence is called operant behavior, because the operant behavior and the associated consequences, and is sometimes referred to as operant conditioning.
11
generally select the response that has been associated with positive outcomes in the past.
The study of reinforcement has produced an enormous body of reproducible experimental research. Reinforcement is the central concept and procedure in the experimental analysis and much of quantitative analysis of behavior.
2.4.1. Reinforcement
The most important principle of reinforcement theory is, of course, reinforcement itself.
Generally speaking, there are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative. Positive reinforcement results when the occurrence of a valued behavior consequence has the effect of strengthening the probability of the behavior being repeated. The administration of the positive reinforce should make it more likely that the students will continue to exert the necessary effort in the future. Negative reinforcement results when an undesirable behavioral consequence is withheld, with the effect of strengthening the probability of the behavior being repeated. Both positive and negative reinforcement have the effect of increasing the probability that a particular behavior will be learned and repeated.
2.4.2. Punishment
Punishment is one of the more commonly used reinforcement-theory strategies, but many learning experts suggest that it should be used only if positive and negative reinforcement cannot be used or have previously failed, because of the potentially negative side effects of punishment. Punishment is often confused with the negative reinforcement, but they are not the same. Punishment attempts to decrease the probability of specific behavior; negative reinforcement attempts to increase desired behavior.
2.4.3. Extinction
Extinction is similar to punishment in that its purpose is to reduce unwanted behavior. The process of extinction begins when a valued behavioral consequence is withheld in order to decrease the probability that a learned behavior will continue. Over time, this is likely to result in the ceasing of that behavior. Extinction may alternately serve to reduce a wanted behavior, such as when a positive reinforce is no longer offered when a desirable behavior occurs.
2.5.
The Use of Reinforcement in the Classroom
13
1. To encourage students to give their full attention to the teacher, friends and learning tasks as a lesson in progress.
2. To promote active participation during the teaching and learning process.
3. To help students to adopt appropriate behavior patterns which do not disrupt others during the teaching and learning process.
4. To recognize students effort and achievement in order to facilitate learning and improve the quality of work.
5. To develop students self management of learning and behavior by gradually reducing extrinsic rewards and emphasizing self-reinforcement.
2.5.1. The Main Form of Reinforcement
2.5.1.1 Positive Reinforcement
2.5.1.2. Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement is an increase in the future frequency of a behavior when the consequences are the removal of an aversive stimulus. Avoidance conditioning is a form of negative reinforcement that occurs when a behavior prevents an aversive stimulus from starting or being applied.
2.5.2. The Types of Positive Reinforcement
2.5.2.1. Verbal Reinforcement
Verbal reinforcement is reinforcers that are used by the teacher to reinforce their students’ responses or behaviors such as praise and other verbal encouragement. They may occur while tasks are being performed, or they may complement more formal feedback on completed work.
Teacher can reward the students with verbal praise when the students did well. This form of reward tend to reinforce the student’s learning and increase the probability that the student will retain the knowledge, have a good feeling about the learning experience and the content of that experience, and/or repeat the behavior that elicited the reward (Thomas Hurt, 1978: 35)
Verbal reinforcement is the common type of reinforcement used by the teachers at schools. The use of reinforcement can also be used to always motivate the students’ braveness so that they change their attitudes from the passive attitude to be more active during the teaching and learning process.
15
Words or phrases:
Yeah, Great, Excellent, Good job, Correct, Well done, etc.
Sentences: Well done, Adhi.
Keep it up, Lisa.
You are on the right track.
I like the way you explained that.
You are doing better.
2.5.2.2. Token Reinforcement
2.5.2.3. Contact Reinforcement
Contact reinforcement is the term applied to a teacher’s use of physical contact, such as a pat on the shoulder, shaking hands, ruffling of the hair or other physical contact from the teacher to the student, used to reinforce student attitude, performance or effort. This type of reinforcement is considered to be appropriate to you learners only, but it is not appropriate with older learners.
2.5.2.4. Proximity Reinforcement
Closely related to contact reinforcement, proximity reinforcement refers to the teacher attention to, display of interest in, and physical nearness to students, when linked to student performance. So, when a student did something well, the teacher will try to get close to the target student. The teacher will do such techniques: standing alongside, advancing toward, walking nearby, and gently guiding his or her student.
2.5.2.5 Gestural Reinforcement
17
Bodily act is a kind of gestural reinforcement used by the teacher which may lead to improve informal teacher and students interaction as an added benefit, such as; clapping hands, pointing, raising arms, thumb up, shaking head, nodding, and signaling O.K.
2.5.2.6. Activity Reinforcement
Activity reinforcement occurs in the classroom when the teacher uses an activity, or task that students prefer or enjoy, as a reinforcer for previous good class work or performance. It means that the teacher will conduct an activity which still have any contribution and relate to the general lesson aims and not the ordinary games or uneducated activities. Teacher may use activity reinforcement to student needs and interest in the following ways: involving them in a classroom activity; letting them go in first turn; allowing them to have extra free time; selecting them to play a classroom game; giving extra physical education time; and to assist with using audiovisual aids or listen to radio or music or view a favorite television program.
2.6.
Schedules of Reinforcement
continuous reinforcement is the fastest way to establish new behaviors or to eliminate undesired behaviors. However, this type of schedule reinforcement is generally not practical in an organizational setting. Therefore, intermittent schedules are usually applied. Intermittent reinforcement means that each instance of a desired behavior is not reinforced. There are at least four types of intermittent reinforcement schedules: fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio.
Fixed interval schedules of reinforcement occur when desired behavior are reinforced after set periods of time. The fixed interval schedule of reinforcement does not appear to be a particularly strong way to elicit desired behavior, and behavior learned in this way may be subject to rapid extinction. The fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement applies the reinforce after a set number of occurrences of the desired behavior. Like the fixed interval schedule, the fixed ration schedule may not produce consistent, long-lasting, behavioral change.
Variable interval schedules are employed when desired behaviors are reinforced after varying periods of time. This reinforcement schedule appears to elicit desired behavioral change that is resistant to extinction.
19
Variable ratio schedules appear to produce desired behavioral change that is consistent and very resistant to extinction.
20
METHODS OF INVESTIGATION
In this chapter, the researcher presented the research design used in the study, population and sample, the research instruments, data collection, and the techniques of analyzing data.
3.1. Research Design
3.1.1. Quantitative Method
Research is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase our understanding of the phenomenon under study. It is the function of the researcher to contribute to the phenomenon and to communicate that understanding to others. Based on the approach analysis, research can be divided into two types, they are:
1. Quantitative analysis 2. Qualitative analysis
21
3.1.2 Experimental Method
Experimental research is unique in two very important respect: It is the only type of research that directly attempts to influence a particular variable, and when properly applied, it is the best type for testing hypotheses about cause and effect relationships. In an experimental study, researcher looks at the effect(s) of at least one independent variable on one or more dependent variables. The independent variable in experimental research is also frequently referred to as the experimental, or treatment, variable. The dependent variable, also known as the criterion, or outcome, variable, refers to the results or
outcome of the study.
Independent variable frequently manipulated in educational research include methods of instruction, types of assignment, learning materials, rewards given to students, and types of questions asked by teachers. Dependent variables that are frequently studied include achievement, interest in a subject, attention span, motivation, and attitudes toward school. The experimental group receives a treatment of some sort (such as the teacher uses token reinforcement to the students), while the comparison study receives a different treatment (such as the teacher uses verbal reinforcement to the students). The Type of Group Pre-Test Treatment Used Post-Test
Experimental Group
9 Token
Reinforcement
9
Comparison Group 9 Verbal
Reinforcement
control or the comparison group is crucially important in all experimental research, for it enables the researcher to determine whether the treatment has had an effect or whether one treatment is more effective than another.
3.1.3. Variables
A common and useful way to think about variables is to classify them as independent or dependent. Independent variable is those that the researcher chooses to study in order to assess his possible effect on one other variable. An independent variable is presumed to affect (at least partly cause) or somehow influence at least one other variable. The variable that the independent variable is presumed to affect is called a dependent variable.
Saleh (2001: 25-27) points out there are five kinds of variables:
1. Dependent variable (Y) 2. Independent Variable (X) 3. Moderator Variable 4. Control Variable 5. Intervening Variable
The variables used in this study are:
23
b.Students’ achievement as the dependent variable.
Affects
3.2.
Population and Sample
3.2.1. Population
Best (1981: 8) states, “A population is any group individuals that have one or more characteristics in common that are of interest to the researcher”. The population may be all the individuals of a particular type or a more restricted part of that group.
The population that the researcher selected in this case of study is the tenth year of SMP 21 Semarang. The total numbers of the students in the population was about 75 students of international class. The number of the students of each class was about 25 students.
In order that the population became efficiently, the researcher had to select a sample. According to Kerlinger (1965: 118), a sample is a part of a population which is supposed to represent the characteristics of the population. The researcher selected two groups of students from the population as sample in
Independent Variable Token and Verbal reinforcement used
Dependent Variable Students’ English
this study. The process of taking the sample would be discussed in the sampling technique.
3.2.1. Sampling Technique
According to Fraenkel (2008: 90) sample in a research study is the group on which information is obtained. For example, all 700 students of SMP 21 Semarang Semarang constitute as population and 50 of those students constitute a sample. When it is possible, researcher would prefer to study the entire population of interest. Usually, however, this is difficult to do. Most populations of interest are large, diverse, and scattered over a large school geographic area. Finding, let alone contacting, all the members can be time-consuming and expensive. For that reason, of necessity researcher selected a sample to study.
In this study, the researcher used the nonrandom sampling as mentioned by Fraenkel (2008: 99). There are three types of non-random sampling and the researcher chose the purposive sampling. Purposive sampling is based on the researcher’s personal judgment to select a sample. The researcher assumed he could use his knowledge of the population to judge whether or not a particular sample will be representative.
3.3. Research
Instruments
25
researcher, first try to analyze the students’ achievement based on the lists of score given by the teacher. Then, after the researcher found two groups that had the same level, the researchers conducted the pre-test, treatment observation, and hold the post test.
Valette (2004: 1) states “testing is a topic of concern to language teachers, both those in the classroom and those engaged in administration or research”. While Arikunto (1998: 139) states, “A test is a number of questions or practicing or another instrument that is used to measure the skill, the knowledge, the intelligence, the ability or the talent whose an individual or a group posses. In this study, the researcher used test as the instrument for collecting the data.
According to Heaton as quoted by Istiqomah (2006: 23) there are two basic kinds of test; the objective and subjective test. The researcher used the objective test in the form of multiple choice test with four options (A, B, C, and D). Each group will be given a test which consists of 55 items and it should be done in the limited time, 70 minutes.
3.4.
Procedures of Collecting Data
3.4.1. Analyzing the Student Score List
than the researcher analyzed which group had the same level and be chosen as the representatives on this study.
3.4.2. Pre-Test
Valette (2004: 14) states, “The pretest is given prior to teaching a course or a unit of instruction”. The pre-test is usually not given in the beginning of a course, unless there are some students who have had prior language experience. The pretest also helps the teacher ascertain the students’ level at the beginning of the course.
3.4.3. Post-Test
It is similar in form and content to the post-test that is given at the end of the course or the unit. A treatment was given to students before the post-test was conducted. In research project, a comparison of pre-test and post-test scores enable the researcher to determine how much the students have learned in one class as opposed to another.
3.5. Data
Analysis
27
important requirements; they are reliability and validity. In addition, a test must also hav
3.5.1. Validity of Test
According to Fraenkel (2008: 147) validity refers to the appropriateness, meaningfulness, correctness, and usefulness of the inferences a researcher makes. Meaning that the test must measure what it claims to be measured. In this study, the researcher used the empirical validity. Empirical validity is the best way to check on the actual effectiveness of a test is to determine how test scores are related to some independent, outside criterion such as marks given at the end of a course or the teacher’s ratings. If the evidence shows that there is a high correlation between test scores and a trustworthy external criterion, the researcher is justified in putting his confidence in the empirical validity of the test. To measure the empirical validity the researcher used Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation by using the formula below:
In which:
: coefficient between X and Y
X : score of the test
N : number of the students
The result is consulted with r product moment, > is valid.
3.5.2. Reliability of Test
Reliability refers to the consistency of scores or answers from one administration of an instrument to anot6her, and from one set of items to record the data and some sort of assurance that the information obtained will enable them to draw correct conclusions about teacher’s opinion (Fraenkel, 2008: 148). Generally speaking, the more samples of students’ performance the researcher take, the more reliable will be the assessment of their knowledge and ability.
The correlation of the variables, which might show the reliability of test, the researcher used K – R 20 formula based on Kuder-Richardson Approaches, as follows:
(
)
(Arikunto, 1993: 150-155)
Which,
29
: the sum of total square score
(
N : the total subject of experiment
: the reliability of the test
K : the sum of the test items
p : the proportion of the subject which gets score 1
q : the proportion of the subject which gets score 0
3.6. Item
Analysis
After determining and scoring the try out test, an item analysis would be made to evaluate the effectiveness of the items. It means to check whether each item meet the requirement of a good test item. This item analysis subsection would focus on two vital features; level of difficulty and discriminating power.
3.6.1. Level of Difficulty
function as a good evaluation. Therefore, each item should be analyzed first, before it is used in an observation process. The formula of item difficulty is as follows:
(Arikunto, 1999: 208)
Which:
P : item’s level of difficulty
B : number of students who answered the item correctly
JS : number of students who join the test
The criteria of determining the item difficulty are:
0.0 < P 0.30 is considered as difficult item
0.30 < P 0.70 is considered as medium item
0.70 < P 1.00 is considered as easy item
3.6.2. Discriminating Power
31
Discriminating power can be obtained by using this following formula:
(Arikunto, 1999: 213-214)
Which:
: number of all students in the upper group
: number of all students in the lower group
: number of all students in the upper group who answered the item
correctly
: number of all students in the lower group who answered the item
correctly
: the proportion of the upper group who answered the item correctly
: the proportion of the lower group who answered the item correctly
The criteria of determining the index of discrimination are below:
D : 0.00 – 0.20 is considered poor
D : 0.21 – 0.40 is considered satisfactory
D : 0.71 – 1.00 is considered excellent
Only the items with strong discriminating power are included in the pre and post-test.
3.7.
Analysis of the Final Result
The obtained data would be analyzed to get the final result. The researcher used the t-test formula, as follows:
Which,
Mx : the mean score of the experimental group
My : the mean score of the controlled group
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Ny : the number of the students of the controlled group
: the total of the square deviation of the experimental group
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DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
In the part of this chapter the researcher is going to present the analysis of the data collected from the previous study research and the discussion of the research findings.
4.1. Data
Analysis
In this sub chapter the researcher is going to analyze and interpret the data that have been gained from the tests given to the students who are taught by using verbal reinforcement and those who are taught by using token reinforcement.
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4.1.1. The Try-Out
The following explanations are the description of level of difficulty, discriminating power, validity and the reliability of the try-out.
4.1.1.1. Level of Difficulty
To determine the level difficulty of each test item, the researcher used the following formula:
For example is the item number 1. There were 21 students who were correct out of 24 students. The computation as follows:
= 0.87
The criteria of determining the item difficulty are:
1.0 < P 0.30 is considered as difficult item
0.30 < P 0.70 is considered as medium item
0.70 < P 1.00 is considered as easy item
4.1.1.2. Discriminating Power
To determine the discriminating power of each test item, the researcher used the following formula:
As an example let’s try to analyze the test item number 1. There are 12 students in the upper group who answered correctly and 9 students in the lower group who answered correctly.
The computation of item number 1 as an example as follows:
= 0.58
The criteria of determining the index of discrimination are below:
D : 0.00 – 0.20 is considered poor
D : 0.21 – 0.40 is considered satisfactory
D : 0.41 – 0.70 is considered good
D : 0.71 – 1.00 is considered excellent
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4.1.1.3. Validity of the Test
To determine the validity of the test, the researcher used the following formula:
Let’s take item number 1 as the example:
N = 24 = 21
= 21 = 11882
= 514 = 460
= 0.6865
On a = 5% with N= 24 it is obtained = 0,404
Because of , therefore item number 1 was valid. There were 30 items
4.1.1.4. Reliability of the Test
To determine the reliability of the test, the researcher used the following formula:
= 110.8056
= 0.909
For a = 5% and number of subject n = 24, r table = 0.404
Because r 11 > r table, then instrument is reliable
4.2. Observation Process and Data Collection
4.2.1. Observation 1 (Pre-Test)
The researcher conducted the pre-test in class B on March 17th 2009 and Class C on March, 16th 2009. The pre-test was conducted from 07.00 until 08.20.
4.2.2. Observation 2 (Treatment 1)
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also likes and dislikes on March 23rd 2009 for Class C and March 25th 2009 for Class B. The teacher used some verbal reinforcement in the Class C and token reinforcement in Class B.
4.2.3. Observation 3 (Treatment 2)
The researcher observed the classroom teaching and learning process. The teacher taught about Descriptive Text and the use of Simple Present Tense and also the Simple Past Tense on April 6th 2009 for Class C (Verbal Group) and Class B (Token Group) on April, 8th 2009. Of course, the teacher used verbal reinforcement in the Verbal Group and token reinforcement in the Token Group.
4.2.4. Observation 4 (Treatment 3)
4.2.5. Observation 5 (Post-Test)
The researcher conducted the post-test for Token Group on May, 13th 2009 and for the Verbal group on May 25th 2009. After the post test, the researcher gave the students questionnaire to fill.
4.2.6. Reading Test
The researcher gave 1 point for each correct answer in determining the score of the test. Therefore, the students’ score was simply based on the number of item the answered correctly. The researcher gave 1 point for the correct answer and 0 for the incorrect answer. So, the maximum score was 60 and the minimum score was 0. Then, the score levels of the students were summed up into the percentage form to facilitate the analysis. The procedures of making the percentage scores are:
1. Computing the Range
=
= x 100 % = 0 %
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2. Computing the Interval
=
=
= 20
Based on the computing procedures above, the scores of the students on reading test are in interval scale. In order to facilitate on computing, these scores are converted into five categories: excellent, good, satisfactory, poor, and very poor.
Table 1
The classification of students’ scores on the tests
Total Interval Scale Classification
Verbal Reinforcement
Percentage Token Reinforcement
Percentage
80 % - 100 % Excellent 13 56.5% 13 54.1%
60 % - 79 % Good 9 39.2% 11 45.9%
40 % - 59 % Satisfactory 1 4.3% 0 0%
20 % - 39 % Poor 0 0% 0 0%
0 % - 19 % Very Poor 0 0% 0 0%
Average Good Excellent
token reinforcement had better achievement than those who ere taught by using verbal reinforcement. To determine whether the difference was statistically significant or merely a chance occurrence, an appropriate statistical analysis had to be applied. In this case, the researcher tried to use the t-test formula. The formula is as follow:
Which,
: mean of the Token Group
: mean of the Verbal Group
: number of students of the Token Group
: number of students of the Verbal Group
In applying the t-test formula above, the researcher has to calculate the variance of the token group and the verbal group.
The formula of calculating the variance is:
=
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= variance of Token Group
= variance of Verbal Group
Token Group
=
=
= 6.3
Verbal Group
=
=
= 5.4
Total Variance
=
= 2.42
“t” Test Formula
t = 3.85
The result should be consulted with the critical value in the t-table. Before the researcher consulted the t-table, he should compute the degree of freedom (df). The formula used to compute this degree of freedom is:
df = N + N
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who were taught by using token reinforcement and those who were taught by using verbal reinforcement.
4.3. Discussion
4.3.1. English Test
The students who were taught by using verbal reinforcement got the average scores of 23.4 on the test that was obtained from the total scores of students who were taught by using verbal reinforcement (538), which was then divided by the number of 23 students who were taught by using verbal reinforcement tested. Thus, they got the good level; therefore, the students’ English achievement was considered as satisfactory. Meanwhile, the second group of the samples got the average of scores 26.1 that was obtained from the total scores of the students who were taught by using token reinforcement (627), which was then divided by the number of 24 students who were taught by using token reinforcement. Meaning, they got good level in their achievement; therefore the students’ English achievement was also considered as excellent.
students (91 %) got the qualitative achievement in the good level, the students’ English achievement was also considered as good.
The second group of the samples was the students who were taught by using token reinforcement. From the calculation, the researcher found that there were 13 students (54.1 %) positioning in the excellent level. The rest, 11 students (45.9 %) were in the good level. Since more than 40 % of the students got the qualitative achievement in excellent level, so the students’ English achievement was also considered as excellent.
So, based on the research conducted previously, the researcher concluded that the difference on students’ achievement scores was related to the treatment given during the teaching and learning process. Both reinforcements are basically good to increase the students’ motivation that later on will affect their achievement during the teaching and learning process. The students who were taught by using token reinforcement got better achievement than those who were taught by using verbal reinforcement.
4.3.2. Questionnaire
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The computation of percentage will be as follows:
= x 100 %
In order to discuss the result of the questionnaire, the writer would sum up the data as follows:
4.3.2.1. Token Group
Table 2
Data in the Token Group
Students’ Answer No. Very Frequently Occurs Sometime Occurs Rarely Occurs Number Of Students
1. 13 11 0 24
2. 9 13 2 24
3. 12 9 3 24
4. 7 16 1 24
5. 16 6 2 24
6. 12 8 4 24
7. 15 8 1 24
8. 15 6 3 24
No. Verbal Reinforcement Token Reinforcement No Reinforcement Number of Students
9. 14 7 3 24
No. Snacks/ Treats Goods/ Things Money/ Cash Number of Students
The question number 1 was about whether English is fun or interesting or not to the students’ opinion. There were 13 students (54%) said very frequently occurs, 11 students (45%) said sometime occurs, and none said rarely occurs. Based on the question number 1, it was clear that majority of the students agreed that English is fun and interesting subject.
Item number 2 asked whether their teacher always gives a lot of questions or not during the classroom activity. There were 9 students (37.5%) said very frequently occurs, 13 students (54%) said sometime occurs and only 2 students (8.5%) said rarely occurs. Then, the researcher concluded that the teacher sometime give questions to the students.
Question number 3 tried to find out whether or not the teacher gave them some praise after they succeeded answer the question. The result showed, there were 12 students (50%) said very frequently occurs, 9 students (37.5%) sometime occurs, and 3 students (12.5) said rarely occurs. So, the conclusion is that the teacher often gave the students some praise.
Question number 4 asked whether or not the teacher gave the students gifts, presents, or treat to the students. It showed, 7 students (28%) said the teacher very frequently gave them some presents, 16 students (66%) said sometime, and only one student said it rarely occurred.
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sometime, and only two students (8.5%) said it they rarely proud and happy. So, majority of the students felt happy and proud when the teacher praised them in front of their classmates.
Question number 6 asked whether they felt happy and proud or not, if their teacher gave them some presents or gifts. There were 12 students (50%) said it occurred very frequently, 8 students (33%) stated it sometime occurred, and 4 students (17%) it rarely occurred.
Item number 7 was about whether they were motivated or not after the teacher gave them praise. There were 13 students (54.3%) were frequently motivated, 10 students (41.5%) said they sometime motivated, and only one student (4.2%) who said rarely motivated. Based on the result, the researcher concluded that 50% of the students were motivated after he/she got praise from the teacher.
Item number 8 asked whether the students were motivated or not, after the teacher gave them some presents or gifts. The result showed that 15 students (62.5%) said they were frequently motivated, 6 students (25%) stated sometime they were motivated and 3 students (12.5%) were rarely motivated. So, we could conclude that 62.5% of the students were motivated when the teacher gave them some prize.
treats. Then, the conclusion is that majority of the students in the Token Group prefer the use of praise to treats.
The last item was item number 10 which asked about which kind of treats they prefer to get. The result showed, 14 students (58%) chose snacks, 5 students (21%) chose gifts/souvenirs and 5 students (21%) chose money. Based on the result above, we concluded that most students prefer to get snacks or treats.
4.3.2.2. Verbal Group
Table 3
Data in the Verbal Group
Students’ Answer No. Very Frequently Occurs Sometime Occurs Rarely Occurs Number Of Students
1. 13 10 0 23
2. 13 10 0 23
3. 14 9 0 23
4. 1 5 17 23
5. 8 8 7 23
6. 8 5 10 23
7. 7 11 5 23
8. 5 12 6 23
No. Verbal Reinforcement Token Reinforcement No Reinforcement Number of Students
9. 10 9 4 23
No. Snacks/ Treats Goods/ Things Money/ Cash Number of Students
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The question number 1 was about whether English is fun or interesting or not to the students’ opinion. There were 13 students (56%) said very frequently occurs, 10 students (44%) said sometime occurs, and none said rarely occurs. Based on the question number 1, it was clear that majority of the students agreed that English is fun and interesting subject.
Item number 2 asked whether their teacher always gives a lot of questions or not during the classroom activity. There were 13 students (56%) said very frequently occurs, 10 students (56%) said sometime occurs and none of the students said rarely occurs. Then, the researcher concluded that the teacher sometime give questions to the students.
Question number 3 tried to find out whether or not the teacher gave them some praise after they succeeded answer the question. The result showed, there were 14 students (61%) said very frequently occurs, 9 students (39%) sometime occurs, and none of the students in the Verbal group said rarely occurs. So, the conclusion is that the teacher often gave the students some praise.
Question number 4 asked whether or not the teacher gave the students gifts, presents, or treat to the students. It showed, only 1 student (4.3%) said the teacher very frequently gave them some presents, 5 students (21.7%) said sometime, and majority of the students in the Verbal Group said it rarely occurred.
sometime, and 7 students (30%) said it they rarely proud and happy. So, some of the students felt happy and proud when the teacher praised them in front of their classmates.
Question number 6 asked whether they felt happy and proud or not, if their teacher gave them some presents or gifts. There were 8 students (35%) said it occurred very frequently, 5 students (22%) stated it sometime occurred, and 10 students (43%) it rarely occurred. Surprisingly, 43% of the students in the Verbal Group said that they would not happy and proud if the teacher gave treats to them.
Item number 7 was about whether they were motivated or not after the teacher gave them praise. There were 7 students (30%) were frequently motivated, 11 students (48%) said they sometime motivated, and only 5 students (22%) who said rarely motivated. Based on the result, the researcher concluded that 30% of the students were motivated after he/she got praise from the teacher.
Item number 8 asked whether the students were motivated or not, after the teacher gave them some presents or gifts. The result showed that 5 students (22%) said they were frequently motivated, 12 students (52%) stated sometime they were motivated and 6 students (26%) were rarely motivated. So, we could conclude that only 22% of the students were motivated when the teacher gave them some prize.
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treats. Then, the conclusion is that most of the students in the Verbal Group prefer the use of praise to treats.
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CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
In this chapter, the researcher is going to explain the conclusion based on the previous research and discussion which will be very useful for readers in making the generalization of the study. In the next sub chapter the researcher also gives some suggestion that may be useful for both teachers and students of English.
5.1. Conclusion
Based on the result of the research and the discussion, the researcher concludes that:
1. The data of this study are the comparison between the use of verbal reinforcement and token reinforcement during the teaching and learning activities in the classroom. This research investigated the RSBI Class B and C of SMP Negeri 21 Semarang in the academic year of 2008/2009. 2. Based on the findings presented on the previous chapter the mean score of
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The difference between two means was 2.7 in favor of the students who were taught by using token reinforcement.
3. By using t-test formula we can see from the result that because t > tt, that is 3.58 > 1.99, meaning that the two means are significantly different. This study accepted the researcher’s hypothesis and refused the null hypothesis. Therefore, there was significance difference on reading comprehension achievement between students who were taught by using token reinforcement and those who were taught by using verbal reinforcement in SMP Negeri 21 Semarang in the academic year of 2008/2009.
4. The use of both reinforcements (verbal and token) basically could create a good learning atmosphere, encourage or motivate the students to be more active during the teaching and learning process. It also can make them to change their perception that English is a worst nightmare into fun activities. This mental building of confidence after their teacher gives verbal or token reinforcements can affect their good achievement in English.
5.2.
Suggestion
After the further discussion and found the result of the study, the researcher would like to offer some suggestions that can be some consideration to the readers.
5.1.1. For the English Teachers
1. The teacher should apply reinforcement during the learning experiences in the classroom. Reinforcement can encourage and motivate the students to learn English better. Once they learn English better, their achievement also increase as time goes by.
2. When the teacher gives verbal reinforcement they can use many varieties of verbal reinforcement, such as good, okay, all right, yes, excellent, nice, fantastic, smart student, brilliant, great, etc.
3. When the teacher gives token reinforcement they can just give candies, snacks, or by treating them in the canteen some meals as far as the teacher’s ability to effort those token reinforcement used. The important thing is not the value but the reward and the proud the students got. 4. Token reinforcement is not only giving items or money, but the teacher
also can give written symbol, for instance signature or comments such as nice, well-done, and excellent in their locker.
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5.2.2. For the Readers:
1. In completing this final project, the researcher investigated only RSBI classes of the seventh year of students of SMP Negeri 21 Semarang. So, the researcher hopes that the other researchers want to investigate the same topic with different types of class, in the regular class for example.
2. The researcher also hopes that other researchers want to investigate the effectiveness of the other types of reinforcement in the students’ English achievement, so the teachers can use the best type of reinforcement concerning to the best achievement.
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