CHAPTER II
THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
A study is said to be valid when it is supported by literature. In this chapter, the writer quotes and explains some sources which are connected with the topic of the study. This chapter consists of three parts. The first part concerns with the definitions of translation, the second part discusses about the collocation and the third part discusses about shifts.
2.1 Translation
2.1.1 Definition of Translation
Brislin (1976:1) gives the definition of translation as a general term referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language to another, whether the language is in written or oral form, whether the language have established orthographies or not, or whether one or both language is based on signs, as with signs of the deaf. From the Brislin definition of translation, it can be said that doing translation is not only transferring language in text but also in oral, Orthographies, signs, or even signs of the deaf.
Finally, pragmatic understanding is related to the message or implication of a sentence. This definition does not states what is transferred. Rather, it states the requirement of the process.
Catford (1965) as cited by Muchtar (2011: 9) defined translation as the replacement of text material in language (source language) by equivalence textual material in another language (target language). If Catford emphasizes in the substitution of material then Pinchuck (1977) as cited by Muchtar (2011-9) defined translation as a process of finding TL equivalence for an SL, utterance.
Bell (1991:5) said that translation is the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalence.
Translation has been defined by many theorists. Each definition shows how each theorist perceives language and translation. Bell (1991:13) said that there are three distinguishable meanings for translation. It can refer to:
1) Translating: the process (to translate; the activity rather than the tangible object);
2) A translation: the product of the process of translating (i.e. the translated text);
3) Translation: the abstract concept which encompasses both the process of translating and the product of that process.
2.1.2 Process of Translation
Bathgate (1981) as cited by Widyamartaya (1989:40-41), suggested seven steps in processing translation. Those are:
(1) Tuning. By this, we mean getting the feel of the text to be translated. Depending on their field of work, translators need to be able to produce the language of a poet or novelist, lawyer or economist, research physicist or factory manager, advertising copywriter or biblical prophet. Each ‘register’,
as it is often called, demands a different mental approach, a different choice of words or turn of phrase. If the text is difficult or of the type which is not so familiar to the translator, he may want to read some background literature or consult the author (if available) or some other adviser.
(2) Analysis. Once the translator has attuned his mind to the framework of the text to be translated, he will take each sentence in turn and split it up into translatable units-words or phrases. He will also establish the syntactic relation between the various elements of the sentence. At some points in this phrase (or the understanding or terminology phrase), it may be necessary to establish relation between elements in larger portions of the text, in the interest of consistency.
pay to the ‘content’ as opposed to ‘form’; it seems obvious that due attention
to both form and contents his essential.
(4) Terminology. The next step is to consider the key words and phrases in the sentence to make sure that apart from understanding them and feeling what they imply, one has a translation for them which is in line with standardized usage and is neither misleading, ridiculous nor offensive for the target language reader. Both in this phase and in the preceding (understanding) phase, discussion with the author or some other adviser is often advisable as the base way to help the translator solve some of his problems.
(5) Restructuring. When all the bricks needed for the edifice of the target language text have been gathered or made, the translator will fit them together in a form which is In accordance with good usage in the target language. This is the phase where ‘form’, as opposed to ‘content’, comes into
its own.
(7) Discussion. For this reason, a good way to end to translation process is often with a discussion between the translator and the expert on the subject matter.
Meanwhile, Robinson (2003: 91) divided the process of translation into three. Those are:
1. Translate:act; jump into the text feet first; translate intuitively.
2. Edit: think about what you've done; test your intuitive responses against everything you know; but edit intuitively too, allowing an intuitive first translation to challenge (even successfully) a well-reasoned principle that you believe in deeply; let yourself feel the tension between intuitive certainty and cognitive doubt, and don't automatically choose one over the other; use the act—response—adjustment cycle rather than rigid rules.
3. Sublimate:internalize what you've learned through this give-and-take process for later use; make it second nature; make it part of your intuitive repertoire; but sublimate it flexibly, as a directionality that can be redirected in conflictual circumstances; never, however, let subliminal patterns bind your flexibility; always be ready if needed "to doubt, argue, contradict, disbelieve, counter, challenge, question, vacillate, and even act hypocritically (be willing to break jour own rules).
2.1.3 Types of Translation
Jakobson (1959) as cited by Bassnett (2002:23) distinguishes three types of translation:
2) Interlingual translation or translation proper (an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language).
3) Intersemiotic translation or transmutation (an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems).
Brislin (1976:3-4) states that according to the purpose, translation can be divided into four types:
a) Pragmatic translation. Pragmatic translation is the translation of a message with an interest in accuracy of the information meant to be communicated in the target language form. Belonging to such translation is the translation of technical information, such as repairing instructions. b) Aesthetic-poetic translation. Aesthetic-poetic translation is the one that
does not only focus on the information, but also the emotion, feeling, beauty involved in the original writing.
c) Ethnographic translation. Ethnographic translation is the one that explicates the cultural context of the source and second language versions.
d) Linguistic translation. Linguistic translation is the one that is concerned with equivalent meanings of the constituent morphemes of the second language and with grammatical form.
2.2 Collocation
2.2.1 Definition of Collocation
1. In corpus linguistics, collocation defines a sequence of words or terms that co-occur more often than would be expected by chance.
2. In phraseology, collocation is a sub-type of phraseme. An example of a phraseological collocation (from Michael Halliday)is the expressionstrong tea. While the same meaning could be conveyed by the roughly equivalent *powerful tea, this expression is considered incorrect by English speakers. Conversely, the corresponding expression forcomputer,powerful computersis preferred over *strong computers. Phraseological collocations should not be confused with idioms although both are similar in that there is a degree of meaning present in the collocation or idiom that is not entirely compositional. With idioms, the meaning is completely non-compositional whereas collocations are mostly compositional.
According to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2003: 247),
collocation is: (1) a combination of words in a language that happens very often and more frequently than would happen by chance. (2) The fact of two or more words often being used together, in a way that happens more frequently than would happen by chance. On the study page B3 of Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary,
collocation is defined as the way in which particular words tend to occur or belong together. For example:
Meals will be served outside on the terrace,weather permitting.
But notMeals will be served outside on the terrace,weather allowing. Both these sentences seem to mean the same thing (‘they’ll bring us our meals
Based on Firth as cited by Leon (2007:3), says
Meaning by collocation is an abstraction at the syntagmatic level and is not directly concerned with the conceptual or idea approach to the meaning of words. One of the meanings of night is its collocability with dark, and of dark, of course, collocation with night (Firth [1951] 1957:196).
2.2.2 The Importance of Collocation
According to Manning (1999:142) collocations are important for a number of applications:
1) Natural language generation (to make sure that the output sounds natural and mistakes like powerful tea or to take a decision are avoided)
2) Computational lexicography (to automatically identify the important collocations to be listed in a dictionary entry)
3) Parsing (so that preference can be given to parses with natural collocations) 4) Corpus linguistic research (for instance, the study of social phenomena like the reinforcement of cultural stereotypes through language (Stubbs 1996)).
2.2.3 Kinds of Collocation
Hill (2002) as cited by Nasution (2003:15-17) states that collocation is divided into four kinds, they are:
1. Unique collocations.
2. Strong collocations.
A large number of collocations, although not unique, are strong or very strong. Predictably, we may talk of trenchant criticism or rancid butter, but this does not mean that other things cannot be trenchant or rancid. We often haveulterior motives orharbor grudgeswhile being reduced to tears or even moved to tears. Such strong collocations are not unique, but it is clear that any knowledge of the words trenchant, rancid, motive, grudge, or tears would be incomplete without some idea of their strong collocates. There words are classified as strong collocations.
3. Weak collocations.
All elementary students create combinations of words which are on the verge of the area we define as collocations i.e. those words which co-occur with a greater than random frequency. Many things can be long or short, cheap or expensive, good or bad. Colours are a good example. Early on, students learn the primary colour. They are able to make combinations such as blue shirt, red car etc. they know that they can apply the colours in English in a similar way to their own language.
4. Medium strength collocations.
Benson et al (1985) as cited by Martyńska (2004:3) divides kinds of collocation into two categories: lexical collocations and grammatical collocations. Grammatical collocations consist of the main word (a noun, an adjective, a verb) plus a preposition or ‘to+ infinitive’ or ‘that- clause’ and is characterized by eight basic
types of collocations.
G1= noun+ preposition e.g. blockade against, apathy towards
G2= noun+to-infinitive e.g. he was a fool to do it. They felt a need to do it
G3= noun+that-clause e.g. we reached an agreement that she would represent us in court. He took an oath that he would do his duty
G4= preposition+ noun e.g. by accident, in agony
G5= adjective+ preposition e.g. fond of children, hungry for news
G6= adjective+ to-infinitive e.g. it was necessary to work, it’snice to be here
G7= adjective+ that-clause e.g. she was afraid that she would fail, it was imperative that I be there
G8= 19 different verb patterns in English e.g. verb+ to-infinitive (they began to speak), verb+ bare infinitive (we must work) and other.
Table 2.1: Types of Grammatical Collocation by Benson et al (1985) as cited by
Martyńska (2004:3)
Type Pattern Example
G1 Noun+ preposition Blockade against G2 Noun+ to-infinitive A fool to do G3 Noun+ that-clause An agreement that
G4 Preposition+ noun By accident
Lexical collocations do not contain prepositions, infinitives, or relative clauses but consist of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. There are 7 types of them.
L1= verb (which means creation/action) + noun/pronoun/prepositional phrase e.g. come to an agreement, launch a missile
L2= verb (which means eradication/cancellation) + noun e.g. reject an appeal, crush resistance
L3= [adjective+ noun] or [noun used in an attributive way+ noun] e.g. strong tea, a crushing defeat, house arrest, land reform
L4= noun+ verb naming the activity which is performed by a designate of this noun e.g. bombs explode, bees sting
L5= quantifier+ noun e.g. a swarm of bees, a piece of advice L6= adverb+ adjective e.g. hopelessly addicted, sound sleep L7= verb+ adverb e.g. argue heatedly, apologize humbly.
Table 2.2: Types of Lexical Collocation by Benson et al (1985) as cited by
L5 Quantifier+ noun A pack of dogs
L6 Adverb+ adjective Closely acquainted
L7 Verb+ adverb Appreciate sincerely
While talking about Indonesian collocation, then Kridalaksana (1982) as cited by Arifin et al (2008-26) said that,
dengan demikian, kita akan menjumpai persandingan antara nomina dan nomina, nomina dan adjectiva, nomina dan verba, nomina dan numeralia. Kridalaksana wants to emphasize that the association of a word will be happened if the word gives the certain meaning to the other words where they collocate. Based on what has been stated above, there are four kinds of collocation suggested by Kridalaksana, they are: noun+ noun, noun+ adjective, noun+ verb, noun+ numeral.
Generally, collocation in Indonesian is classified into two. The first one is Kolokasi Kelompok I and the second is Kolokasi Kelompok II. Kolokasi Kelompok I has the pattern of noun+ adjective and it is divided into twelve types, they are:
1. Collocation type I A. Formed by noun which is semantic, human, concrete, and countable. While the adjective is semantic, character, and behavior.
Example:anak cerdas orang sabar
N Adj N Adj
2. Collocation type I B. Formed by noun which is semantic, human, non-concrete, countable, non- alive and time. While the adjective is semantic and situation.
Example:iklan penting malam aman
N Adj N Adj
3. Collocation type I C. Formed by noun which is semantic, human, non-concrete, countable, alive, and grouped. While the adjective is semantic, and situation.
Example:tanah subur Negara makmur
N Adj N Adj
Example:wajah bulat hati lembut
N Adj N Adj
5. Collocation type I E. Formed by noun which is semantic, human, non-concrete, uncountable, and non-alive. While the adjective is semantic and quality.
Example:nasib buruk cerita pendek
N Adj N Adj
6. Collocation type I F. Formed by noun which is semantic, human, concrete, and countable. While the adjective is semantic and situation.
Example:bapak gagah pemuda tampan
N Adj N Adj
7. Collocation type I G. Formed by noun which is semantic, human, concrete, and countable. While the adjective is semantic and age.
Example:janda muda orang tua
N Adj N Adj
8. Collocation type I H. Formed by noun which is semantic, non- human, concrete, and countable. While the adjective is semantic and colour.
Example:angsa putih kotak hijau
N Adj N Adj
11. Collocation type I K. Formed by noun which is semantic, human, non-concrete, uncountable, and alive. While the adjective is semantic and situation.
Example:awan mendung cahaya redup
N Adj N Adj
12. Collocation type I L. Formed by noun which is semantic, non- human, concrete, countable, and non- alive. While the adjective is semantic and environment.
Example:pintu baru laut luas
N Adj N Adj
Kolokasi Kelompok II formed by adjective+ noun. Basically this type of collocation is the opposite of Kolokasi Kelompok I.
Example:kuning langsat merah darah
Adj N Adj N
2.2.4 Strategies in Translating Collocation
Baker (1992: 72-76) suggest three strategies in translating collocation. They are:
1) Translation by Using a Collocation of Similar Meaning.
2) Translation by Changing Meaning.
Mostly, translators used this strategy when they have to find the naturalness and accuracy. Therefore, they change the meaning of a certain word with its synonym or near synonym. For example, English collocation run a car cannot be translated into Indonesian as mengendarai sebuah mobil since it is not equivalent of the source language collocation. Meanwhile, the collocation means to own, use, and be able to maintain a car financially. Therefore, the translators need a change to find the equivalence, and get the natural and accurate translation.
3) Translation by Paraphrasing
Usually, this strategy is used when the translator cannot find the equivalences in translating the source language collocation into the target language although she/he has made some changes. This strategy is used when the source language collocation can only be expressed in another way (paraphrasing).
2.3 Shifts
2.3.1 Kind of Shifts
1. Level Shifts
As Catford (1965) in Venuti (2000:141) as cited by Simanjuntak (2011: 13) states “Level shifts. By a shift of level we men that a SL item at one linguistics level has a TL translation equivalent at a different level”. It
means that a grammatical unit in English, such as noun, affixes, etc, has a lexical unit in Bahasa Indonesia (Machali 1998:14). The following are the examples of level shifts:
1. (a)EvenMary does not want to buy those there things. (b)Marypuntidak mau membeli ketiga benda tersebut.
2. (a) Bonihassold his motorcycle, because he needs some money. (b)Bonisudahmenjual sepeda motornya, karena dia butuh uang.
In example (1), we can see that a unit (morpheme) in Bahasa Indonesia grammar ‘pun’is translated into ‘even’ a lexis in English. And also
in example (2), it can be seen that in English if ‘have’ comes together with past participle of ‘sell’. The form ‘have+ past participle’ in English is
translated into ‘sudah’, a lexis in Bahasa Indonesia.
2. Category Shifts
2.1 Structure Shift
Structure shift is about the changing of grammatical between the structure of the SL and the TL, because of the structure of the SL and TL is not correspondent.
Example:
The form of the noun phrase of SL is Modifier- head, while the form of the noun phrase of TL is Head- modifier.
New car mobil baru
Adj N N Adj
2.2 Class Shift
Class shift is about when the translation equivalent of a SL item is a component of a different class in TL.
Example:
Medical student mahasiswa kedokteran
Adj N N N
2.3 Unit Shift
Unit shift is about a change of rank in which the translation equivalent of a unit at one rank in the SL is a unit at a different rank in TL.
Example:
The lord tuhan
P W
2.3.1 Word Shift
Example:
Stranger orang asing
Adj P
2.4 Intra System Shift
Intra system shift is the last shifts; intra system shift is about the shift which occurs along with the names of the types of shift affecting the other fundamental categories of grammar unit, structure and class.
Example:
A pair of shoes sepasang sepatu
N (plural) N (singular)
2.3.2 Units of Ranks in English
Morley (2000) in Simanjuntak (2011: 16) identifies five grammatical units representing ranks in English: sentence, clause, group (or phrase), word, and morpheme.
1. Sentence
Sentence is a set of words expressing a statement a question, or an order, usually containing a subject and a verb. (Oxford Advance Learner’s
Dictionary, 2000:1212) 2. Clause
Clause is a group of related words that contains a subject and a verb and is used as part of a sentence. There are tow kinds of clauses: independent clause and dependent clause. (Foresman, 1997: 160)
(b) You have not yet said good bye or bought your ticket. (independent clause)
(c) Because Josephine and Haile whispered and giggled during the lecture, Mr. McKenzie gave them extra homework. (dependent clause)
3. Group (phrase)
Group (phrase) is a group of words without a finite verb, especially one that forms part of a sentence. (Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary
2000:988) Example:
There came a giant to my door 4. Word
Word is a single a single unit of language which means something can be spoken or written. (Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary 2000:988)
Example: (a) Book (b) Zebra 5. Morpheme
Morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning that a word can be divided into. (Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary 2000:862)
2.3.2 Word Classes in English
classes of word since the possibility to identify word shifts is larger than the minor classes of word.
1. Major Classes of Word
The major classes of word include noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. Here is the description of the major classes of words:
a. Noun
A noun is a word used to name a person, place, thing, or idea. And can be classified as either common nouns or proper nouns and as either abstract nouns or concrete nouns. (Foresman, 1997: 178)
Example: (1) Sailor (2) Ocean (3) Bird (4) patience
b. Verb
In a sentence, a verb either expresses action or it links the subject to a word or words in the predicate. A verb that tells what action is taking place is called an action verb. It can show either physical or mental action. (Foresman, 1997:202)
c. Adjective
Adjective is a word used to add something to the meaning of a noun. (Wren and Martin 1975:4)
Example: (1) Unique (2) Beautiful (3) Pretty (4) Full
d. Adverb
Adverb is a word used to add something to the meaning of verb, an adjective, or another adverb. (Wren and Martin, 1975:4)
Example: (1) Quickly (2) Beautifully (3) Tomorrow (4) This morning
2. Minor Classes of Word
The minor classes of word are pronoun, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.
a. Pronoun
and again. In the preceding example, David is the antecedent of the singular pronounshisandhe. (Foresman, 1997: 186)
Example: (1) I (2) You (3) He (4) She
b. Preposition
A preposition is a word used to show the relationship of a noun or pronoun to some other word in the sentence. That noun or pronoun, which always comes after the preposition, is called the object of the preposition. The preposition, its object, and any words that modify the object make up the prepositional phrase. (Foresman, 1997: 251)
Example: (1) Above (2) Between (3) In (4) Over c. Conjunction
The word junctionmeans a joining. The purpose of conjunction is to join words or word groups in a sentence. (Foresman, 1997: 255)
(3) Both
(4) Not only- but also
d. Interjection
Interjection is a word used to stand for a sound or to express emotions such as joy, pain, shock, excitement, approval, or displeasure. Some commonly used interjections are listed below:
Ugh Ouch Phew Ah Oops
Hey Shh Yuk Wow Oh
Alas Bam Psst Eek
Interjection may appear at the beginning or at the end of a sentence, or they may stand alone. They are generally followed by a comma or an exclamation mark. (Foresman, 1997: 257)
Example:
(1) Ugh, my stomach.
