CHAPTER 3 DIGLOSIA, CODE SWITCHING AND CODE MIXING,
D. Interference
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79 Ke-bawa Terbawa
Ke-bagus-an Terlalu bagus
b. Syntactic Interference
Interference occurs when the syntactic structure of a language is absorbed by the other language (Suwito, 1983, p. 56) as mentioned by Avid (2008, p. 27). Interference can be seen in the use of syntactic fragments of words, phrases, and clauses in sentences (Chaer, 2004, p.
124). example, English and Indonesian phrases.
English Indonesian Royal Jelita Hotel Hotel Royal Jelita
c. Lexical interference
Interference occurs as a transfer of a morpheme or word from the first language becomes the use of a second language, or it can also occur as an extension of the first language simple words in the language, which is to expand the existing meaning so that it becomes new words, or it can occur as a combination of both (Yusuf, 1994, p. 76). For example in a sentence, semua ini butuh planning yang matang. It has lexical interference from English to Indonesian.
d. Semantic Interference
Yusuf, S (1994, p. 82) divided semantic interference into three types; first, Expansive interference is the importation of vocabularies elements of a language into the other language. for example: Words such as demokrasi, politik, and revolusi are imported from Europe culture and vocabulary into Indonesia culture. Second, Additive interference is the addition of new vocabulary with special meaning although the existing word is still used and has complete meaning. For example, is the word uncle from English vocabulary besides the word paman in the Indonesia language? Third, Replasive interference is interference that occurs as vocabulary replacement as the change of meaning. For example, the word saya is changed from the old Malay language sahaya.
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2. Some factors that cause the language interference for student Language interference usually occurs in the process of acquiring a second language. There are four factors that can cause some learners in the process of acquiring a second language, namely:
a. Learner's first language or mother language
Ellis in Chaer (2003, p. 236) states that in general the mother tongue or the first language acquired has a lot of influence in the second language acquisition process. Mother tongue is even believed to be a problem in the process. A learner consciously or not transfers elements of the first language when he uses second language and consequently, interference will occur.
The constructive theory states that learning a second language depends on linguistic abilities that have been obtained by students previously. Using a second language is a transfer process. So, if the language structure of the learner is obtained or the equation of the first language with the target language, the learner will easily transfer the process. On the other hand, if the second language structure of there is many differences, so it will be a lot of difficult for the learner to get it second language.
b. Language social environment
Language social environment includes all people around language speakers who have a rule as the second and the third person in language terms. In simple words, the language environment also can be narrowed into friends in conversation. Friends in conversation have a great cause in forming language speech for language speakers.
Tjohno (1984) in Chapter (1995, p. 17) stated that language social environment is everything that language learner hears and sees which is related to the target language. Language social environment can be divided into the formal environment and informal environment. The formal environment of language learning focuses on the acquisition of structures of the target language consciously. Krashen in Chaer (2003, p. 263) stated that a formal language social environment has some characteristics: First, an artificial situation. Second, A part of the whole language teaching activity in the class. Third, In the environment, the learner is directed to do some language activities as practices of
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language structures which has gotten, and then, In fact, a formal language social environment is not only limited to the class the most important thing in a formal environment, the learners acquire target language structures consciously which is either from the teacher, literacy books, or even from someone else outside class. Meanwhile, an Informal environment is natural, not artificial. Language in a formal environment is including language which is used in practice to talk with classmates, parents, or someone else without pressure in the acquisition of the target language structure.
c. Lack of second language vocabulary
Knowledge Bhela stated that in practicing using a second language, a language learner temporarily will borrow his first language’s word to express his mind in speaking if he does not know the word’s meaning in the second language.
d. Lack of knowledge about the different language systems between first language and second language
Bhela (1999, p. 12) stated that if a second language learner did not know the correct second language, she might interfere when practicing it. Involuntarily, she will make some errors and mistakes because of his lack of knowledge about the difference in the language system between first language and second language. It appears to be much more difficult for an adult to learn a second language system that is as well learned as the first language. Typically, a person learns a second language partly in terms of the kinds of meaning already in the first language.
E. Divergence
The term divergence refers to how individuals highlight the differences in speech and nonverbal between them and their interlocutors (Giles et al., 1991). Bourhis and Giles (1977, cited by Giles et al., 1991) designed an experiment to demonstrate a divergence strategy between the Welsh people in an interethnic context. They conducted a survey of Welsh people about second language learning techniques. The questions in the survey are presented and spoken to them in English by a very English-sounding speaker, which at one point.
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They explain a reason they want to learn what they call a "dying language" with a bleak future.” The question is considered as threatening their feelings of Ethnic identity. The informants then answered the question using their Welsh accents. This is shown, although Welsh people can understand and acquire English from survey questions, they still stick to their accents.
Divergence, like convergence, can take many forms, both verbal and verbal and nonverbal (LaFrance, 1985 cited by Giles et al., 1991). Some features mentioned in convergence can be applied in a divergence strategy, depending on 'how much' speakers tend to maintain their style of speech or the dialect or accent used in their daily lives.
1. Categories of convergence and divergence
Convergence and divergence can both take multiple forms (Gallois &
Giles, 1998, cited in Giles et al., 2016). Those depend on the social value, degree, symmetry, modality, and duration of the behavior. Gallois & Giles (1998) then proposed the categories into upward and downward, full and partial, symmetrical and asymmetrical, unimodal and multimodal, and short- term and long-term.
a. Upward and Downward
The Upward and Downward is refers to a shift toward more prestigious variations in a speech, while downward refers to a shift toward less prestigious, or even syntagmatic. Upward convergence occurs when the non-standard accent of the language matches the standard accent of another person, while standard speakers who match the non-standard accents of others are a downward example of convergence. On the other hand, accentuating one's non-standard accent with a speaker with a standard accent is called downward divergence, whereas adopting standard accent with non-standard accented speakers is an upward divergence.
b. Full and partial
Adjusting speech can also be described as full or partial. When the speakers who initially showed a speed of 100 words per minute increased his speed to the same as another speaker's speed of 200 words per minute, it counts as full convergence, whereas when the speed increases to 150 words per minute it becomes only partial matching, it is called partial convergence.
83 c. Symmetrical and asymmetrical
Symmetrical and asymmetrical adjustments mostly occur in the convergence strategy. They seek a reciprocal relationship between recipients within a conversation. Sometimes adjustments become symmetrical when a person's communicative gestures are reciprocated by the other. On the other hand, the asymmetric adjustment does not get any reply from the recipient in the communication.
d. Unimodal and Multimodal
Accommodation theory also distinguishes between unimodal and multimodal in terms of adjustment. Unimodal refers to shifts in only one dimension, Ex: an accent. Meanwhile, multimodal refers to the shift of several dimensions simultaneously, such as accent, posture, and gaze.
For example, in a study by Bourhis and Giles (1977), a Welsh participant responding to a threatening Englishman using only the Welsh accent engaged in unimodal divergence, whereas those who expanded the Welsh accent and introduced Welsh vocabulary into their language.
responses involved in multimodal divergence. On the other hand, shift unimodal and multimodal can emerge in a convergence strategy, where a speaker tends to adjust only to other people's accents (unimodal) or other aspects such as posture and facial affect (multimodal).
2. Short-term and long-term in divergence
The difference between short-term and long-term accommodation is very useful in explaining dialect change for students (Trudgill, 1981, cited in Giles et. al, 2016). Both short-term and long-term mostly appear in the convergence strategy. In short, it affects the individual's speaking habits after having a conversation. Short-term adjustment to a particular style can cause temporary changes in individual habitual speech, while long-term ones can ultimately result in a permanent change in one's speech habits.
3. Converge change the role of language in the service encounter divergence
Service encounter is the essence of service as a dyadic interaction between consumers and service providers (Surprenant and Solomon 1987). To provide services, service providers must understand what consumers need and what consumers need to explain their preferences. The recent focus on value
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creation further emphasizes the importance of these dyadic interactions (Grönroos and Voima 2013; Vargo and Lusch 2004). In this dialogical process (Ballantyne and Varey 2006), the process by which service providers and consumers combine into an interactive process is a process in which both actors play an active role (Grönroos and Ravald 2011). Service providers and consumers must also engage in verbal communication to communicate expectations and requests (Oliver 2006). However, several studies examined service encounters from a communication perspective (Echeverri and Skalén 2011). Previous studies investigated the level, frequency, or quality of the information provided by salespeople or service providers (Ahearne, Jelinek, and Jones 2007), the ceremonial, conventional, or commercial use of a language.
4. Divergence in the Spread of English
According to Methri and Bhatt (2008) England's internal colonization of Wales, Scotland, and (for the second time) Ireland, and then industrialization and immigration of English speakers led to the spread of the English language.
In the first inner-circle countries, there was colonization and then the English were changed to inner-circle English with its speaking norms. The first American colonists to settle in America were mostly English speakers from various parts of England. After the United States gained independence, America tried to standardize its English version and it turned out to be the first major variation outside the British Isles.
The colonial period of some of them like India took two centuries. After declaring independence and living in the postcolonial era, they preserved the English language and its use in society which led to the birth of a new variety of Wes. National culture and identity are reflected in the use of this indigenous variety which has its own phonological, lexical, syntactic, pragmatic, and discourse characteristics. So, in every colonized society the first generation was taught English by native English speakers directly, so native norms and standards became the criteria for success in learning English. Native speakers are the perfect model of language proficiency.
The new generation moved farther from native speaker norms. As a result, their speech went away from the native speaker pronunciation norms and these diversions happened in the case of other aspects of language including vocabularies, grammar, pragmatic appropriateness, and discourse.
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Cultural origin: In the majority of the outer circle countries, people accept English as a second language but they adapt it based on their cultural features and values. They are not to make a copy of American or British culture or to be under linguistic imperialism (Phillipson, 1992) but to introduce, strengthen and update their own cultures.