CHAPTER 8 TYPES OF LANGUAGE PLANNING; LANGUAGE
A. Sociolinguistics
In sociolinguistic studies, language is defined as a symbol system, in the form of sound, arbitrary, productive, dynamic, diverse, and human. The Big Indonesian Dictionary (KBBI) terminology defines language as a system of arbitrary sound symbols used by members of a society to cooperate, interact, and identify themselves. The diverse conditions of society result in the use of different forms of language variations. Differences in the form of language between groups in society are known as language variations.
For sociolinguists (sociolinguists), language always varies and this language variation is caused by social factors, such as who the speakers are, the people involved in the speech, where the speech takes place, and for what purpose the speech was delivered (Wijana, I Dewa Putu, 2019: 4). People who use language are always diverse, both in terms of age, social status, economic status, education, gender, occupation, and so on. Likewise, the identity of the person being spoken to is always diverse when viewed from the sociolinguistic variables. The timing of the speech also varies, it can be at night, during the day, at midnight, and so on. The place where the speech takes place may also be at the wedding venue, at school, in court, at the patrol place, and so on. The
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atmosphere of the speech may also vary, it can be very formal, semi-official, very informal, and so on.
In the use of language, it is clear that there are variations in a language whose existence is influenced by social factors, such as who is speaking, with whom the person is speaking, when he is speaking, where he is speaking, and for what purpose he is speaking. The language used by the youth group of speakers will of course be different from the language used by adults. Not only that, language variations appear related to differences in social status, gender, type of work, and religion. So, it can be said that language variations arise due to social diversity and the diversity of language functions, Markamah (2001:
220). Language can reflect and transmit social and gender differences.
Trudgill (2003: 54) defines gender language variety as a language variety that is identical to men and women.
Following what Chaer and Leonie (2014) wrote, namely based on its use, what language is used for, in what field, what paths and tools, and what is the formal situation? Language variation has two views, namely language variation occurs as a result of social diversity and the diversity of language functions so that it can be classified based on the existence of social diversity and the function of activities in social society. Language variations can also be distinguished based on speakers and usage. Based on the speaker, who uses the language, where does he live, what is his social position in society, what is his gender, and when is the language used?
Relationship between gender and language, according Holmes (1998) compiled a list entitled "Sociolinguistic universal tendencies" there are 5 things that can be tested, namely:
a. Women and men develop different patterns of language use.
b. Women tend to focus on the affective functions of an interaction more often than men do.
c. Women tend to use linguistic devices that stress solidarity more often than men do.
d. Women tend to interact in ways which will maintain and increase solidarity, while (especially in formal contexts) men tend to interact in ways which will maintain and increase their power and status.
e. Women are stylistically more flexible than men.
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There are differences in such speech, some undoubtedly real but others almost certainly imaginary. Any differences that do exist surely also must interact with other factors, e.g., social class, race, culture, discourse type, group membership, etc.
B. Gender
In Webster's New World Dictionary, gender is defined as the visible difference between men and women in terms of values and behavior. Gender is a concept used to identify the differences between men and women in terms of socio-cultural influences. Gender is defined as a mental and cultural interpretation of male and female sex differences. Pateda (1987) says gender is an inherent trait of men and women that is socially and culturally constructed. For example, women are gentle, beautiful, and emotional, while men are strong, rational, and mighty. The characteristics and properties themselves are interchangeable properties. This nature is caused by space and time as well as the different social and class environments of society.
According to John Edwards, “Men have many of their distinct expressions, which women understand but never pronounce themselves. On the other hand, women have words and phrases that men never use, or maybe mocked for in disdain. Women often seem to have a language other than men.
Oddly enough, men and women can't understand each other's language, but there are situations where women usually speak language A and men's language B, without either having a different language (bilingual).
According to Barron (1986) and Taylor (1951) in the linguistic literature, perhaps the best-known example of gender differentiation is found in the Lesser Antilles of the West Indies among the Caribbean Indians. It has been reported that Caribbean males and females speak different languages, the result of an invasion long ago in which a group of Caribbean-speaking men killed local Arawak-speaking men and intermarried with Arawak women. The descendants of these Carib-speaking men and Arawak-speaking women have sometimes been described as having different languages for men and women because boys learn Carib from their fathers and Arawak girls learn from their mothers. This claim of two separate languages is now rejected. What differences exist does not result in two separate or different languages, but rather one language with notable gender-based characteristics.
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Phonetic differences between male and female speech have been observed in various languages. In Gros Ventre, an Amerindian language in the northeastern United States, women have a palatine stop where the man makes a palatal stop for the teeth, for example, women's kiatsa "bread" and men's diatsa. When a woman speaking Gros Ventre quotes a man, she attributes the female pronunciation to her, and when the man quotes a woman, she relates the male pronunciation to her.
Furthermore, any male use of female pronunciation is likely to be seen as a sign of hermaphroditism. In the Northeast Asian language, Yukaghir, both women, and children have /ts/ and /dz/ while men have /tj/ and /dj/. Parents of both sexes have /oj/ and /tj/. Therefore, these differences are not only related to gender but also age classification. So, in his life, men experience the development of /ts/ and /tj/ and /oj/ and /dz/ and /dj/ and /tj/, and appropriate women have /ts/ and /oj/ and /dz/ and /tj/. In Bengali, men often substitute /l/
for the first /n/; Women, children, and the uneducated are not. Similarly, in Siberia, men, but not women, often fall in /n/ and /t/ when they appear between vowels, for example, nitvaqenat and male nitvaqaat. In Montreal, men don't pronounce the letter l in the pronouns il and elle more often than women.
Schoolchildren in Scotland seem to pronounce the letter t in words like water and get it more often than schoolchildren, who prefer to substitute the oboe stop. Haas (1944) notes that in Koasati, an Amerindian language spoken in southwestern Louisiana, among other gender-related differences, men often pronounce the s at the end of verbs but women don't, for example, the male lakáws "He picked it up" and the female lakáw . What's interesting is that this type of pronunciation seems to be fading, as younger women and girls don't use these forms. Older speakers' confessions of sexism are evidenced by the fact that girls teach their sons to use the male form, and in male storytelling where women speak using the female form to convey their words. This practice is in direct conflict with the above situation at Gros Ventre, where there is no such change in reporting or citations.
In the field of morphology and vocabulary, much research focuses on the English language. In a research paper that is intuitive, anecdotal, and largely personal, yet challenging and engaging, Lakoff (1973) claims that women use color words such as mauve, beige, aquamarine, lavender, and magenta but that is what most men do. number. He also argues that adjectives such as adorable, charming, divine, lovely, and sweet are also
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commonly used by women but rarely used by men. It is also said that women have their vocabulary to emphasize certain influences on them, such words and expressions are very gentle, such as so good, such fun, exquisite, lovely, divine, precious, adorable, darling, and fantastic. Moreover, the English language distinguishes some distinctions based on gender, for example, actor–
actress, waiter–waitress, and master–mistress.
Some of these differences are reinforced by deeply rooted usage patterns and semantic developments. For example, ladies and gentlemen have developed very different ranges of usage and meanings, so while Joan can be described as Mrs. Fred, Fred cannot be described as Joan’s master. Other word pairs that reflect a similar differentiation are boy-girl, man–woman, gentleman–lady, bachelor– spinster, and even widower–widow. In the latter case, while you can say "She's Fred's widow," you cannot say "She's Sally's widow." Lakoff cites many examples and makes his point that the words
"equal" referring to men and women have very different associations in the English language. An obvious example she uses is the distinction between "she is a professional" and "she is a professional," a distinction that may have diminished significantly over the past few decades as women's accomplishments in many professions have been recognized and acknowledged. The concept of "profession" itself has expanded.
C. Sex category
Every human being born into the world is chosen into two types, female and male. This biological difference is compatible in addition to the fact that women have a uterus, sucklings, eggs, and a vagina, while men have sperm and a penis, and these differences are given and natural so that they give birth in a natural role as well.
Meanwhile, gender refers to the differences in the personality of men and women based on social and cultural construction, which is related to the nature of their status, position, and role in society as well as the occurrence of gender differences that are social and cultural. Created. In addition, the community has various scripts that its members follow as they learn to play masculine and feminine roles.
One particular piece of sexism in language that has gotten a lot of comment is the gender system that many of them have, the he–she–it ‘natural’
gender system of English or the le–la or der–die–das ‘grammatical’ gender
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systems of French and German. Possible relationships vary between gender systems (masculine, feminine, neuter) and gender differences (male, female, not both). See Romaine (1999) for some observations and claims regarding this relationship, for example, his claim that “ideological factors in the form of cultural beliefs about women enter into the assignment of gender in [grammatical] systems which are considered to be formal and purely arbitrary.” In English, Such, connections sometimes create problems for us in finding the correct pronouns: compare the natural "everyone should turn their papers in five minutes" (but using the word "natural" that purists denounce!) with apparently "no sane". He will. Again, the difference between a woman and a man can often be avoided - sometimes archaic of course - so it probably doesn't mean that gender-differentiated language has to be sexist, which could also be an obvious argument in favor of Whorfian. hypothesis. People who use this language are or are not sexist; Chinese, Japanese, Persian, and Turkish do not make the kinds of gender differences that English does through the pronoun system, but it would be difficult to assert that men who speak these languages are less sexist than men who speak English.
Of course, there are gender differences in the choice of words in different languages. Japanese women indicate that they are women when they speak, for example, by using the final particle ne or another particle wa. Also, in Japanese, male speakers refer to themselves as boku or ore whereas a female uses watasi or atasi. Whereas a man says boku kaeru ‘I will go back in plain or informal speech, a woman says watasi kaeru wa (Takahara, 1991).
Children learn to distinguish these differences from an early age. However, Reynolds (1998, p. 306) notes that "high school girls' use of the boku has recently become very popular in Tokyo. The girls interviewed on a TV show explained that they could not compete with the boys. in the classroom, in games, or fights with watasi. The use of boku and other expressions in a masculine setting by young female speakers has increased to a wider area and an older group of speakers.” In polite conversation, a female Thai speaker refers to herself as dichan while the male uses phom. Also, in Thailand, women emphasize repeated verbs by doubling, i.e. by repeating the verb, while men place the descriptive verb, mak, after the verb. work instead.
In the problem of grammar in English, we find that Brend (1975) claims that male and female tone patterns are somewhat different, and women use certain patterns related to surprise and politeness more than men. Along the
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same lines, Lakoff says women can answer questions with phrases that use the upward intonation pattern typically associated with questions rather than the descending intonation pattern associated with assertive statements. According to Lakoff, women do this because they are less confident than men in themselves and their opinions. Being generally unassertive and/or tentative in expressing their views, they are said to use more ‘hedging’ devices than men, i.e., words and expressions such as kind of, sort of, I mean, you know, maybe, and like.
However, Poos and Simpson (2002), after analyzing a large body of academic data from the University of Michigan, found that 'in the field of academic speech, there is no gender-specific effect on the hedging frequency of speakers'. Women add a distinctive question to the phrase, for example,
"They caught the thief last week, didn't they?" This claim on the issue of labeling and insecurity has been tested by others (Dubois and Crouch, 1975, Cameron et al., 1989, Brower et al., 1979) and found a drawback: again, empirical data do not always confirm axiomatic judgments. However, recent researchers have found that the gender of the interviewer is an important variable in determining how the speaker asks a particular question.
D. Sexist language
In English, there is linguistic dominance, which is the dominance of men over women. Examples of common terms that use the word man, chairman, and spokenman. When awareness of equal rights for men and women emerges among English-speaking societies, there is also a different awareness of language. For example, using the word he or she to avoid using it excessively, and changing masculine terms like president and speaker to more neutral words like chairperson and spokerperson. Sexist language can also be seen from two points of view; First, about how much the English grammatical system itself supports the formation of a sexist language, and second, to what extent factors outside of language play a role.
This linguistic discrimination occurs in almost all patriarchal languages so women face a dilemma and at the same time face language discrimination in two ways, namely how they learn to speak and how the language treats women. The language was used by men to oppress women, and the ideology of the English language was not created and defined. by men so that women are exposed more often. Even if the word is addressed to women, it is more
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indicative of a woman's dignity, euphemistic, exaggerated, and more powerful, while for men it is more creative.
Moreover, patriarchal English in the classification of women is much stricter than that of men. For example, to describe an old woman, there are at least eight types of expressions; Hen, trot, heiler, warhorse, crone, hag, beldam, and frump. Women are often personified and trapped in terms of language.
Why does this happen? This is due to the stereotype that the majority of people want to maintain their dominance through the distinction between the linguistic expression of men and women, and society sees that women are only seen as complements, weak beings, and this also affects the gender inequality against women. Several factors cause differences in the expression of sexist language.
1. The problem of domination
From various studies in the field of language, its relationship to social and political life, and the culture of society, it becomes clear that women are indeed different from men. The difference in language between men and women is closely related to the issue of power. It can be demonstrated that men tend to have more power than women in terms of physical and financial workplaces and hierarchy in statistical terms. This superior position, in turn, will give birth to linguistic differences that lie not only in differences in sound, use of grammar, and choice of words but also in the manner of utterance.
Indeed, according to Linda Thomas, at an event attended by both men and women, women often do not get time to interrupt, and when there is an opportunity they are not taken seriously.
To counterbalance the dominance of the male paradigm that dominates the world of language, there is a presentation of a feminist method. This method seeks to provide opportunities for women to express opinions, problems, questions, and suggestions that are often not heard by the public and ignored by non-feminist scholars. In short, this method results in a change in the status quo of women's life that can make women aware of their not very liberated condition.
The problem with this difference arises due to the dominance of one party over another which creates the stigma that women are helpless victims, while men are seen as detractors of women. This can happen due to the separation of men and women in stages of social and cultural life. Two things are considered to have contributed to this difference:
First, is the problem of social relations. Friendship and similar play habits in childhood and then continuing into adult friendships will generate groups of men and women who have their subcultures. In each of these subcultures, there are also language patterns and patterns suitable only for their group. Problems will arise when both of them want to communicate.
Second, related to biological factors and socialization. For example, boys are forbidden to play with flowers because flowers symbolize something soft, and softness is for girls. On the other hand, women are forbidden to wear pants, play soccer, swords, and other body games because these games are for boys, and if girls keep playing, they are called tomboys.
Another phenomenon that illustrates the socialization of this difference is that girls at an early age receive more protection than boys. If a girl sits rudely, then her parents will quickly scold her, but if there is an unruly boy, then he is considered an active child, and even receives praise. It is clear that the socialization applied is not neutral because of flowers, colors, games, feelings, and behavior (morals), not only for men or women, and applies to everyone. This socialization is considered a precursor to the emergence of the second class of women in society. There are several examples of problems that occur in sexist language
a) Symmetry and Asymmetry Problems
The English word for symmetry is the generic word “horse” for both male and female horses.
Examples: Generic : horse
Female : mare
Male : stallon
Baby horse : foal (male and female), Baby horse female : filly
Baby horse male : colt
The term to refer to humans also uses the same system, but it is not symmetrical (asymmetrical).