ENGLISH CURRICULUM
AND MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT
PENULIS: PRYLA ROCHMAHWATI, M.Pd EDITOR: DR. AHMADI, M.Ag
JUDUL BUKU : ENGLISH CURRICULUM AND MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT PENULIS : PRYLA ROCHMAHWATI, M.Pd
EDITOR : DR. AHMADI, M.Ag
CETAKAN KETIGA 2017 ISBN ; 978-602-9312-26-3
PENERBIT : STAIN Po PRESS
Jln Pramuka No 156 Ponorogo. Telp (0321) 481277, email [email protected]
PREFACE
One of the important factors to increase education quality is curriculum. In order to improve the quality of education, the government develop educational curriculum in accordance with the demand of society and the advance of technology including in Indonesia. Therefore, teachers, students, and stakeholders are making aware of it.
English Curriculum and Material Development is one of core subject for English Department This part of this course aims at providing students with knowledge of the basic principles of curriculum and Syllabus, Curriculum and Syllabus in Indonesia Context, Components of Curriculum, Designing syllabus and lesson plan for SMA/SMP students and Developing materials. It is expected that after this course, students are able to apply what are being discussed during course and design their own syllabus and lesson plan in planning their teaching as a good and professional teacher.
This textbook entitled “English Curriculum and Material Development” deals with several topics to be presented 11 units. Unit 1 copes with the concept of curriculum and syllabus including its definition, the differences and its importance in language teaching.
Unit 2 discusses one of the curriculum component namely Need Analysis. It covers definition, purpose, target, steps and techniques for conducting need analysis. Unit 3 encompasses the conception of aims, goals and objectives. Unit 4 covers Assessment and Testing which highlight how and why conducting assessment and testing. Unit 5 discusses Materials as a part of curriculum component. This part converses the framework for material design, material blue print and where materials come from. Unit 6 highlight the concept of teaching that cover up the role of institutions, teachers, teaching and learning process and application of curriculum through lesson plan. Unit 7 discussed evaluation concept. It deals with approaches, purposes and procedures in conducting evaluation. Unit 8 describes the curriculum and syllabus in Indonesia context. Unit 9 explains the Curriculum in SMA/MA level including syllabus and lesson plan in this grade. Unit 10 emphasizes the Curriculum in SMP/MTs level including syllabus and lesson plan in this grade. Finally, Unit 11 discusses the concept of material development in ELT.
This textbook is expected to be the supplementary material for supporting the teaching and learning process of English Curriculum and Material Development course and encourage students to be active and motivated in their learning.
Ponorogo, September 2017 Pryla Rochmahwati, M.Pd
TABLE OF CONTENT
PREFACE ... 2
TABLE OF CONTENT ... 3
LESSON I CURRICULUM AND SYLLABUS ... 5
A. Definition of Curriculum ... 5
B. Definition of Syllabus ... 7
C. The Differences between Curriculum and Syllabus ... 8
D. Kinds of Syllabus ... 9
E. The Importance of Curriculum in Language Teaching ... 11
LESSON II COMPONENT OF CURRICULUM: NEED ANALYSIS ...12
A. Definition of Need Analysis ... 12
B. The Purposes of Need Analysis ... 13
C. The Target of Need Analysis ... 13
D. Steps and Techniques for Conducting Needs Analysis. ... 14
LESSON III COMPONENT OF CURRICULUM: AIMS GOALS AND OBJECTIVES ...17
A. Aims ... 17
B. Goals ... 17
C. Objectives ... 18
D. The Importance of Goals and Objectives ... 21
LESSON IV COMPONENT OF CURRICULUM: ASSESSMENT AND TESTING ...23
A. Making Decision in Testing ... 24
B. Matching Test to Purpose ... 24
C. Test Designs ... 26
D. Student’s Knowledge of the Questions ... 27
E. Matching Tests to Decision Purposes ... 27
F. Adopt, Develop, and Adapt Language Test ... 29
G. Organizing and Using Test Results... 30
LESSON V COMPONENT OF CURRICULUM : MATERIALS ...32
A. Framework for Material Design ... 32
B. Materials Blueprint ... 33
C. Where Do Materials Come From? ... 34
LESSON VI COMPONENT OF CURRICULUM : TEACHING ...36
A. The Role of Institution... 36
B. The Role of Teachers ... 38
C. The Teaching Process ... 40
D. The Learning Process... 41
E. Application of Curriculum Through Lesson Plan ... 43
LESSON VII COMPONENT OF CURRICULUM: EVALUATION ...46
A. Approaches to Evaluation ... 46
B. Purpose for Evaluation ... 47
C. Procedures Used in Conducting Curriculum Evaluation ... 48
LESSON VII CURRICULUM AND SYLLABUSES IN INDONESIA CONTEXT ...49
A. Development of Curriculum in Indonesia ... 49
B. Development of English Language Teaching Syllabus in Indonesia ... 53
LESSON IX SMA/MA ENGLISH CURRICULUM ...56
A. Syllabus for SMA Grade ... 56
B. Lesson Plan for SMA Grade ... 56
LESSON X SMP/MTs ENGLISH CURRICULUM ...58
C. Syllabus for SMA Grade ... 58
D. Lesson Plan for SMA Grade ... 58
LESSON XI MATERIAL DEVELOMPENT ...59
A. The Concept of Materials Development ... 59
B. Principles in Developing Materials ... 60
C. Types and Characteristic of Teaching Materials ... 61
D. Developing Materials ... 63
REFERENCES ...67
LIST OF APPENDICES ...70
CURRICULUM VITAE ...96
LESSON I
CURRICULUM AND SYLLABUS
Learning Outcomes
1. Identifying the basic principles of curriculum and syllabus in Language Teaching Instructional Objectives
After this course, the students are expected to be able to : 1. Describe the definitions of curriculum
2. Mention the advantages of using curriculum in Language Teaching 3. Mention the disadvantages of using curriculum in Language Teaching 4. Describe the definition of syllabus
5. Mention kinds of syllabus LESSON I CURRICULUM AND SYLLABUS
The organization of schooling and further education has long been associated with the idea of a curriculum. But what actually is curriculum, and how might it be conceptualized?
We explore curriculum theory and its relation to the education.
A. Definition of Curriculum
Curriculum has numerous definitions, which can be slightly confusing.
However, the idea of curriculum is hardly new - but the way we understand and theorize it has altered over the years - and there remains considerable dispute as to meaning. It has its origins in the running/chariot tracks of Greece. It was, literally, a course. In Latin curriculum was a racing chariot; currere was to run. A useful starting point for us here might be the definition offered by John Kerr as quoted by Kelly defines curriculum as all the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school1.
Using educational concepts, we can say that the curriculum defines the educational foundations and contents, their sequencing in relation to the amount of time available for the learning experiences, the characteristics of the teaching institutions, the characteristics of the learning experiences, in particular from the point of view of methods to be used, the resources for learning and teaching (e.g. textbooks and new technologies), evaluation and teachers’ profiles.2
In what follows we are going to look at four ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice: (1). Curriculum as a planned program of activities. (2). Curriculum as product. (3). Curriculum as process.
1. The curriculum as a plan for instruction
1 Kelly, A. V. 1999. The Curriculum. Theory and practice. London: Paul Chapman.
2 Cecilia Braslavsky. (Online) ( Http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/
archive/AIDS/doc/ cecilia_e.pdf, access in April, 10, 2012)
The processes of developing, implementing, and evaluating a curriculum may be considered as the essential elements of a curriculum plan. A curriculum plan is a system for both decision making and action with respect to curriculum functions directed at a specified population. Thus, a curriculum plan has three primary functions: to produce a curriculum for an identifiable population, to implement the curriculum in a specific school, and to appraise the effectiveness of the curriculum developed.
Goodlad argues not only that curriculum development results in a plan for instruction, including elements of evaluation and the potential for school improvement, but also that the key unit for educational change is the individual school; and the chief decision makers in effectuating a curriculum plan are the school principal, teachers, students, parents, and local community. Thus, the primary ingredient of teaching and learning is the local school site. 3
2. Curriculum as the product
Knowledge was seen as something similar to a product that is manufactured.
Generally, one starts knowing nothing, is taught, and one transmits that knowledge to action. For the most part, this point of view worked for quite some time, as it organized learning quite neatly. There were a series of steps leading to the product, and curriculum could be designed accordingly. Those steps are: Diagnosis of need, Formulation of objectives: Selection of content, Organization of content, Selection of learning experiences, Organization of learning experiences, Determination of what to evaluate, and the ways and means of doing it.
The curriculum as product model is heavily dependent on the setting of behavioral objectives.Ralph W Tyler stated that since the real purpose of education is not to have the instructor perform certain activities but to bring about significant changes in the students' pattern of behaviour, it becomes important to recognize that any statements of objectives of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students4. In other words we can say that curriculum, essentially, is a set of documents for implementation.
3. Curriculum as a process.
Another way of looking at curriculum theory is through process. In this sense curriculum is not a physical thing, but rather the interaction of teachers, students and knowledge. In other words, curriculum is what actually happens in the classroom and what people do to prepare and evaluate.
What we have in this model are a number of elements in continuous interaction. Teachers enter certain situations with an ability to think critically; an understanding of their role and the expectations others have of them; and a
3 Goodlad, J. I. 1998. Educational Renewal: Better Teachers, Better Schools. New York, NY:
Wiley.
4 Ralp W Tyler. 1949. Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. .4
proposal for action that sets out essential principles and features of the educational assembly. Guided by these, they encourage conversations between, and with, people - out of which may come thinking and action. They continually evaluate the process and what they can see of outcomes.
A curriculum is viewed as a particular form of specification about the practice of teaching. It is not a package of materials or a syllabus of ground to be covered. It is a way of translating any educational idea into a hypothesis testable in practice5 In other hand, there are many definition from others experts of curriculum as quoted in Nasution6, they are ;
1. Edward A. Krug at The Secondary School Curriculum. He stated that a curriculum consist of the means used to achieve a purpose of schooling.
2. Robert Gagne defines curriculum as a series of units of material arranged in such a way that faithfully studied the unit as a whole with the skill and ability requirements contained in the previous unit objectives that must be mastered ole boy first.
3. Daniel TannerTanner & Laurel Tanner stated that curriculum is the learning experiences planned and directed, organized through the reconstruction process of systematic knowledge and experience under the supervision of educational institutions so that learners can continue to have a passion for learning as part of his personal social competence.
4. Ronald C. Doll views that curriculum is the materials and processes, both formal and non-formal education in which children acquire knowledge and understanding to develop skills, change attitudes, appreciation and values under the responsibility of the school.
5. Soetopo and Soemanto see curriculum as an attempt to convey the principles and essential characteristic of an education plan drawn up in such a way that can be implemented by teachers in schools.
6. J. Gallen Saylor and William N. Alexander give definition of curriculum as sum total of the effort to influence school learning whether in the classroom, playground or out of school. "The curriculum is a whole school effort to influence learning, both of which take place in class, as well as outside the school yard.
7. Franklin Bobbit defines curriculum as good overall experience directly maupu not directly related to the development of individual ability.
The curriculum is also interpreted as a series of experiences that are used for a person to enhance child development.
B. Definition of Syllabus
A syllabus is an expression of opinion on the nature of language and learning; it acts as a guide for both teacher and learner by providing some goals to be attained.
5 Stenhouse, L. 1975. An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development, London:
Heinemann. . 142
6 Nasution, MA, 2001. Asas-asas Kurikulum, Jakarta, Bumi Aksara. . 2
Hutchinson and Waters define syllabus as a statement of what is to be learnt and reflects of language and linguistic performance7. This is a rather traditional interpretation of syllabus focusing as it does on outcomes rather than process.
However, a syllabus can also be seen as a "summary of the content to which learners will be exposed8. Syllabus is the explanation about basic standards of competence and competence into the subject matter, learning activities and achievement of competence indicators9. Basuki stated that syllabus is one of steps in KTSP Development, especially to answer “what we must learn?” and the explanation of the main program in one subject that come from standard competence and basic competence which determined into indicators, materials, learning processes, evaluation systems, time allocation, learning sources.10
From those definitions we can say that syllabus outlines the goals and objectives of a course, prerequisites, the grading/evaluation scheme, materials to be used (textbooks, software), topics to be covered, a schedule, and a bibliography. Each of these components defines the nature of the learning experience. Goals and objectives identify the expected outcomes and scope of the course as determined by the instructor or course designer, restricting the domain of knowledge for the learner.
Prerequisites limit the student population to those with certain kinds of learning experiences, usually other courses. The grading or evaluation scheme tells students what kind of learning activities are to be valued (e.g., assignments, tests, papers, projects), that is, the currency of learning in this particular course. Topics to be covered specify the content that the instructor feels is important. The schedule provides a timetable for learning, usually with milestones in the form of due dates or tests.
C. The Differences between Curriculum and Syllabus
Syllabus and Curriculum are two words that are often confused as words that have same sense. Strictly speaking they are two different words that give different meanings. Syllabus refers to the program or outline of a course of study. Curriculum on the other hand is a word that refers to the subjects that are studied or prescribed for study in a school or in a college.
A curriculum is typically a guideline set out for educators that prescribes what they need to teach their students. It tends to outline the subjects that need to be taught, as well as methods for ensuring that each student has indeed learned the necessary materials. On the other hand, a syllabus is a more descriptive list of the concepts that will be taught in a particular class.
7 Hutchinson, T. & Waters, A. 1987. English For Specific Purposes: A Learning Centred Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 80
8 Yalden, J. 1987. Principles of Course Design for Language Teaching. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. 87
9 Abdullah Idi, M. Ed. 2007. Pengembangan kurikulum Teori & Praktik ( Jogjakarta, Ar Ruzz Media. 45
10 Basuki, M.Ag, dkk, Cara Mudah Mengembangkan Silabus, Pustaka Felicha, 2010, 3
D. Kinds of Syllabus
A syllabus provides a focus for what should be studied, along with a rational for how that content should be selected and ordered. This section explains seven types of syllabus - Structural, Situational, Topical, Functional, Notional, Skills, and Task11. 1. Structural Syllabus
This type is talk about the material that constructs material structurally.
For instant, the following sample of heading from the table of contents of grammar class is obviously organized around structures:12
Chapter 1: Verb Tenses 1-1 The Simple Tenses 1-2 The Progressive Tenses 1-3 The Perfect Tenses
1-4 The Perfect Progressive Tenses 1-5 Summary Chart of Verb Tenses 1-6 Spelling of –ing and –ed Forms
Chapter 2: Modal of Auxiliaries and Similar Expression
2. Situational Syllabuses
This type is talk about material based on context, condition or situation.
Example:
A selection of main heading from the table of contents of Brinton and Neuman (1982) reveals an overall organizational structure that is basically situational:13
Introduction Getting Acquainted At The Housing Office Deciding to Life Together Let’s Have a Coffee
3. Topical Syllabuses
This type is talk about material based on the topics.
Example:
Some of the main heading from the table of contents of Smith and Mare (1990) will illustrate a topical syllabus:14
Unit 1 Trends in Living
1. A cultural difference: Being on Time 2. Working Hard or Hardly Working
3. Changing Lifestyles and New Eating Habit Unit 2 Issues in Society
11 James D Brown. 1995. The Elements of Language Curriculum (A system approach to program development). Heinle&Heinle Publishers. 7
12 Ibid. Page 8
13 Ibid. Page 9
14 Ibid. Page 9
1. Loneliness
2. Can Stress Make You Sick
3. Care of The Elderly: a Family Matter
4. Functional Syllabuses
This type is talk about materials with typically organized: semantic uses, or meaning packets, called functions (after van Ek & Alexander 1980).
Example:
A few of the heading from the table of contents of Jones and Baeyer (1983) will exemplify a typical functional syllabus: 15
1. Talking about yourself, starting a conversation, making a date.
2. Asking for information: question techniques, answering techniques, getting more information.
3. Getting people to do things: requesting, attracting attention, agreeing, and refusing.
4. Talking Past event: remembering, describing experiences, imagining what if…
5. Conversation technique: hesitating, preventing, interruption, and interrupting politely, are bringing people together.
5. Notional Syllabus
This type is talk about some categories some like distance, duration, quantity, duality, location, size and so on.
Example:
A sample of the unit heading from the table of contents below:
Unit 1 Properties and Shape Unit 2 Location
Unit 3 Structure
Unit 4 Measurement 1 (of solid figure) Unit 5 Process 1 Function and ability Unit 6 Action in sequence
6. Skill-Based Syllabus
This type is talk about the ability to use and continue to learn the material.
Example:
Some of the main heading from the table of contents of Barr, Clegg, and Wallace will provide an example of a skill-based syllabus.16
Scanning Key Words
15 Ibid. page 10
16 Ibid. page 11
Topic Sentences Reference Word Connectors
7. Task-Based Syllabus
This type is talk about the syllabus that only gives the students task or assignment.
Example:
A sample of the main heading from the table of contents of Jolly (1984) provides an example of a task-based syllabus.17
1. Writing notes and memos 2. Writing Personal Letters
3. Writing Telegram, Personal ads And instruction 4. Writing Description
5. Reporting Experience
6. Writing to Companies and Official
E. The Importance of Curriculum in Language Teaching
An effective curriculum offers good impression on many sides. It provides administrators, teachers and students with good impact.
1. Impact on Administrators
A curriculum allows administrators to provide a dynamic educational program for current and prospective students. Schools, colleges and universities attract students with a variety of quality, competitive and flexible program curricula.
2. Impact on Teachers
A curriculum offers teachers the ideas and strategies for assessing student progress. A student must meet certain academic requirements in order to go to the next level. Without the guidance of a curriculum, teachers cannot be certain that they have supplied the necessary knowledge or the opportunity for student success at the next level, whether that level involves a high school, college or career.
3. Impact on Students
A curriculum gives students an understanding of what must be accomplished in order to obtain a degree. Without such knowledge, students would be lost in a maze of academic courses that seemingly leads nowhere. They would have no assurance that they are taking the proper subjects toward a diploma or a degree. A curriculum promotes a sense of order and structure in the pursuit of academic success.
17 Ibid. page 12
LESSON II
COMPONENT OF CURRICULUM: NEED ANALYSIS
LESSON II COMPONENT OF CURRICULUM: NEED ANALYSIS Competence Standard
1. Identifying Need Analysis in Language Curriculum Development Basic Competence
1. Identifying the objectives of need analysis.
2. Identifying the users of need analysis 3. Identifying The Target of need analysis
4. Identifying Procedures for conducting need analysis Instructional Objectives
After this course, the students are expected to be able to : 1. Explain the objectives of need analysis
2. Describe the users of need analysis
3. Determine the target population in conducting need analysis 4. Formulate the procedures for conducting need analysis
Historically, need analysis introduced into instruction of language through movement of ESP between 1960 till 1970. Although, this matter of need analysis do not suggested only for ESP, but also for the student of foreign language in general.
Even, need analysis have been conducted informally for years by all teacher which wish to assess what language that the student need to learn. Needs analysis (also known as needs assessment) has a vital role in the process of designing and carrying out any language course, whether it is English for Specific Purposes (ESP) or general English course18
A. Definition of Need Analysis
The term needs analysis generally refers to the activities that are involved in collecting information that will serve as the basis for developing a curriculum that will meet the needs of a particular group of students19. It means that need analysis includes all the activities used to collect information about the students' learning needs, wants, wishes, desires, etc. The process also
18 Dudley-Evans, T., and St. John, M. 1998. Developments in ESP: A multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
19 Iwai, T., Kondo, K., Limm, S. J. D., Ray, E. G., Shimizu, H., and Brown, J. D. 1999. Japanese Language Needs Analysis. (Online) (http://www.nflrc.hawaii.edu/Networks /NW13 /NW13.pdf, acsess on, June, 20, 2012.)
sometimes involves looking at the expectations and requirements of other interested parties such as the teacher, administrators, financial supporters, and other people who may be impacted by the program.
Needs analysis is also a systematic process for determining and addressing needs between current conditions and desired conditions. The discrepancy between the current condition and wanted condition must be measured to appropriately identify the need. The need can be a desire to improve current performance or to correct a deficiency.
B. The Purposes of Need Analysis
What is the need analysis for? We should be able to answer this question. The analysts do this step are to identify the ability of student, what knowledge and skill the student already have, what the student wish to achieve, to know the difficulties in language learning, in order to decide what language points the student needed to learn. After knowing all information that already mention, the analyst can give alternative about what the teacher have to do to help the student increase their ability and achieve their wish in language learning.
The information gathered from a needs analysis can be used to help you define program goals. These goals can then be stated as specific teaching objectives, which in turn will function as the foundation on which to develop lesson plans, materials, tests, assignments and activities. Basically, a needs analysis will help you to clarify the purposes of your language program.
The main aims of a needs assessment could be (1) offering the needed foundation (information basis) for development or improvement of an educational or social program, (2) restructuring of an organization for improving the performances in relation with the established goals, (3) setting up criteria for contract services of human resources training and development, (4) identification of a solution for a complex problem or issue20.
C. The Target of Need Analysis
There are some points in the target population in conducting need analysis. It is not only a single person but any group that participate in the need analysis:
1. The target group
The target group is the student in program, but the teachers (lecturers) or the administrators are also targeted.
20 James Dean Brown, The Elements of Language Curriculum. .36
2. The audience
The audience usually consists of teacher, teacher aides, program administrators and any governing bodies or supervisors in the bureaucracy above the language program.
3. The need analysts themselves
That is person who responsible for conducting the need analysis. May be consultant or member of the faculty designated for the job
4. The resources group
That is people who become the source of information about the target group. For example: the parents and the lecturers.
D. Steps and Techniques for Conducting Needs Analysis.
Steps in need analysis must logically be reliable, valid, and usable within a context before it can be effectively used. The steps in conducting need analysis are:
1. Clarify the purpose of the needs analysis.
The following questions can be guidance for clarifying the purpose of need analysis. They are:
What do you know? What do you think you know? What do you want to know?
What are you trying to measure?
What will you do with the information you collect?
How will you report the information? Is it user friendly and easy to understand?
Are all interested groups included in planning and conducting the needs assessment?
Who will be responsible for the various steps?
2. Identify the population
In this stage, we need to find the answer of who - students, teachers, administrators, other school staff, parents, community members, volunteers, service providers etc.
3. Determine how you will conduct the needs analysis.
4. Design a survey instrument or adopt one that already exists.
Are the instruments easy to use?
Is the format easy to summarize and analyze?
5. Collect Data
In collecting data, we need to provide information related to
The current and future needs of the school, students, parents, teachers, and the community
How well the current processes meet these clients’ needs
The ways in which the school and community are changing
The root causes of problems
The types of education programs and expertise that will be needed in the future
6. Analyze Data
In analyzing data, we try to find (1) What are the strengths? And (2) What are the weaknesses? Moreover, the purposes of analyzing the data are:
Improve instruction
Provide students with feedback on their performance
Gain common understanding of what quality performance is and how close we are to achieving it
Measure program success and effectiveness
Understand if what we are doing is making a difference
Know which programs are getting the results we want
Get to the “root causes” of problems
Guide curriculum development and revision
Promote accountability
Meet state and federal requirements
Use data to determine goals for increased student achievement, benchmarks for progress, and measurable outcomes
7. Use the results
Determine short and long term goals—use at least 3 data sources to justify each goal or target area
Develop a plan
Allocate resources
Summarize findings
There are some kinds of instruments used in conducting in need analysis.
a. Tests
Tests can provide information about the general ability levels of students (Proficiency), about possible grouping in the class based on their ability (placement), about specific problem that students have in the language learning (diagnostic), and about their achievement in previous or other programs (achievement).
b. Observations
This procedures usually involves watching an individual or a small number of individuals, and recording the behaviors that occur. So, in this part the analyst observate the student by looking behavior, interaction between people, and inventory that used to record a count of physical objects.
c. Interviews
This procedures can do by individual interview or group interview.
Individual interview can be done looking for private information. Group interview might appear to be one way around the time problem and the information given in this way is not confidential.
d. Meetings
This part is used to gathering information by making a meeting with the participants and the analyst give a tasks to them. In the meeting the participant try to answer a task may provide useful information about the people and program in question.
e. Questionnaire
The analysts give written questionnaires to the participants. Biodata survey is used to get information and facts about the background of each participant. The next is opinion survey that be used to know the teacher thinking about the existing program, its objectives, the materials, and so on.
Self-ratings is refers to know the students (their own abilities, the interest level, motivation, and so on). Judgmental rating is the way that the analyst asks to the student to give a judgement in various aspects of the program.
LESSON III
COMPONENT OF CURRRICULUM:
AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
Competence Standard
1. Identifying Aims, Goals and Objectives in Language Curriculum Development Basic Competence
1. Identifying Aims, Goals and Objectives in language teaching Instructional Objectives
After this course, the students are expected to be able to :
1. Distinguish Aims, Goals and Objectives in language teaching 2. Formulate Aims, Goals and Objectives in language teaching LESSON III COMPONENT OF CURRICULUM: AIMS GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
Needs analysis refer to the activities involved in gathering information that will serve as the basis for the developing a curriculum that will meet the learning needs of particular group of students. The process of needs analysis can generate a tremendous amount of information that must be sorted and utilized in some way within the curriculum. One way to use this information is to apply what has been learned in the need analysis for the formulating of program goals and objectives.
A. Aims
Aims are general statement that provides direction or intent to educational actions. Aims are usually written in amorphous terms using words like: learn, know, understand, appreciate and these are not directly measurable. Aims may serve as organizing principles of educational direction for more than one grade.
Indeed these organizing principles may encompass the continuum of educational direction for entire programs, subject areas of the district.
B. Goals
There are definitions of the goals, namely:
1. Goals are general statements of the program’s purposes.
2. Goals should usually focus on what the program hopes to accomplish in the future, and particularly on what the students should be able to do when they leave the program.
3. Goals can serve as one basis for developing more precise and observable objectives.
4. Goals should never be viewed as permanent, that is, they should never become set in cement.21
The primary reason for this last point is that the needs being addressed are only perceived needs and such perceptions may change. In fact, actual changes may occur in both language needs and situation needs if new and different types of students enter the program. Goals may take many shapes.
They may be language and situation-centered as in the three goals includes in the statement: “In our program, the students will learn how to fill out forms in Indonesia, read a menu, and order a meal.”
Goals are broad statements of what the students will be able to do when they have completed the course.A curriculum will often be organized around the goals of the program. Thus the goals and syllabuses of a program may be related. The program fosters acceptance of cultural differences between countries. The process of defining goals makes the curriculum developers and participants consider, or reconsider, the program’s purposes with specific reference to what the students should be able to do when they leave the program.22
C. Objectives
If curriculum goals are defined as statements of the desirable and attainable curriculum purposes and based on the perceived language and situation needs of the participants in a program. Instructional objectives will be defined here as specific statements that describe the particular knowledge, behaviors, and / or skill that the learner will be expected to know perform at the end of a course or program.
Instructional objectives are specific, measurable, short-term, observable student behaviors to ensure your students to reach your goals.
Consider the following “objectives” that were stated for an upper-level ESL for academic purposes class at a well-known American University:23
By the end of the course, a student will be able to:
1. Prepare a term paper (including footnotes, bibliography, title pages, and so forth).
2. Take notes on a lecture.
3. Answer questions following such a talk.
A statement like “a student will be able to prepare a term paper” is far too general to fit the definition of an objective as I have given it here. The three
21 James Dean Brown, 1995. The Elements of Language Curriculum, 71 22. Ibid, . 72
23 Ibid., 73-74.
“objectives” do match the definition I have given for curriculum goals. For instance, whether the following seem more like curriculum goals or instructional objectives:
By the end of the course, the student will be able to:
1. Understanding conversational English.
2. Correctly underline sentences that function as examples within 600 word passages of 11th grade reading level on general science topics three out of four times.
3. Develop oral language skills that will prepare them to participate in class discussions, make oral presentations before an audience, and respond to questions, as well as continue to improve through self-evaluation of speech.
4. Find and write down the library call numbers for 10 books found in the card catalog when supplied with only the author and title with 90 % accuracy.
In distinguishing between goals and objectives, it is probably easiest to consider the extremes. Ask yourself if the statement is closer to a very general goal or to a very specific instructional objective.
At the other extreme on the continuum are very specific instructional objective. These are easy to spot because they are specific, and they are specific because they have the three essential characteristics, that is, they include three components:
1. Performance (what the learner will be able to do)
2. Conditions (important conditions under which the performance is expected to occur)
3. Criterion (the quality or level of performance that will be considered acceptable)
According to Bixler, there are three types of objectives. They are Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor.
Cognitive
This includes knowledge or information recall, comprehension or conceptual understanding, the ability to apply knowledge, the ability to analyze a situation, the ability to synthesize information from a given situation, and the ability to evaluate a given situation.
E.g., "Given a description of a planet, the student will be able to identify that planet, as demonstrated verbally or in writing." or "The student will be able to evaluate the different theories of the origin of the solar system as demonstrated by his/her ability to compare and discuss verbally or in writing the strengths and weaknesses of each theory."
Affective
Affective refers to attitudes, appreciations and relationships among others.
E.g., "Given the opportunity to work in a team with several people of different races, the student will demonstrate an positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race, as measured by a checklist utilized/completed by non-team members.”
Psychomotor
Psychomotor dealt with physical skills.
E.g., "The student will be able to ride a two-wheel bicycle without assistance and without pause as demonstrated in gym class."24
Objectives should specify four main things:
1. Audience - Who? Who is this aimed at?
2. Behavior - What? What do you expect them to be able to do? Use action verbs to describe an overt, observable behavior.
3. Condition - How? Under what circumstances will the learning occur?
4. Degree - How much?
Example of well-written objective in affective view
“Given the opportunity to work in a team with several people of different races, the student will demonstrate an positive increase in attitude towards non- discrimination of race, as measured by a checklist utilized/completed by non-team members.”
o Audience : the students
o Behavior: will demonstrate an positive increase in attitude towards non- discrimination of race
o Condition: Given the opportunity to work in a team with several people of different races
o Degree : as measured by a checklist utilized/completed by non-team members
Example of well-written objective in cognitive view
“Given examples and non-examples of constructivist activities in a college classroom, the student will be able to accurately identify the constructivist examples and explain why each example is or isn't a constructivist activity in 20 words or less.”
o Audience : the student
24 Bixler, B. Writing Instructional Goal and Objective (Online) . (http://www.personal.
psu.edu/bxb11/ Objectives/, retrieved in June, 12, 2012.)
o Behavior : will be able to accurately identify the constructivist examples and explain why each example is or isn't a constructivist activity
o Condition: Given examples and non-examples of constructivist activities in a college classroom
o Degree: in 20 words or less
Example of well-written objective in psychomotor view
Given a standard balance beam raised to a standard height, the student will be able to walk the entire length of the balance beam (from one end to the other) steadily, without falling off, and within a six second time span.”
o Audience : the student
o Behavior : will be able to walk the entire length of the balance beam (from one end to the other)
o Condition: Given a standard balance beam raised to a standard height o Degree: without falling off, and within a six second time span
D. The Importance of Goals and Objectives
Goals and objectives are very important because they do the following:25 1. Help direct the choice of curricular contents and the assignment of relative
priorities to various components of curriculum.
2. Suggest what learning methods will be most effective.
3. Enable evaluation of learners and the curriculum. Thus, permitting demonstration of the effectiveness of curriculum.
4. Suggest what evaluation methods are appropriate.
5. Clearly communicate to other such as learners, faculty, program directors, department chairs, and individual from other institution.
Goals and objectives create the foundation for lesson plans. If they are written well, an instructor will have an effective and meaningful structure for discussion, activities, and assessment. Goals and objectives serve as a reminder that teaching is not an end in itself, but the means to an end.
Goals explain the reasoning behind what you will teach in a session.
They articulate what you wish to accomplish and help to map your direction.
They address the question: What do I want my students to take with them after the session is completed? Once you've organized your goals, you can decide what content and teaching method will best achieve them.
25 (Online) (http//www.sil.org./componentofcurriculum/ retrieved in September, 30, 2011)
Goals state what a student should be able to do at the end of the library session; they do not describe the learning process.
Goals for one session are often related to goals for the entire course. It can be helpful to look at the overall course goals and those of other library instructors. Goals should be clear and reachable. Concentrate on naming the most important broad concepts.
Objectives are student performances of the concepts described in your session goals. They are often referred to as 'learning outcomes' because they define more specifically what skills students will be able to demonstrate after your session. They can be used to assess the effectiveness of the session.
Objectives should always focus on the students, not the instructor.
Objectives should address outcomes, not learning processes. Each objective should focus on only one idea. Objectives should measure specific behaviors.
Try to avoid using vague verbs such as 'understands' and 'knows.' Not having clearly defined objectives may result in:
1. Misunderstandings and bad feelings from collaborating organizations whose outcomes were left out of the survey
2. Poor direction to those who are commissioned to do a survey, potentially producing survey results which do not answer the questions which the sponsoring organization needs answered
3. A poor questionnaire which does not gather the data required to measure one or more important indicators or outcomes
4. Lack of appropriate supplies and equipment
5. Undirected and unfocused data analysis and wasted time
LESSON IV
COMPONENT OF CURRICULUM:
ASSESSMENT AND TESTING
Competence Standard
1. Identifying Language Assessment Basic Competence
1. Identifying Appropriate Assessment
2. Formulating test for certain skill in Language Teaching Instructional Objectives
After this course, the students are expected to be able to : 1. Synthesize test to the learning Goals and Objective
2. Organize appropriate test based on learning goals and objectives 3. Select approppriate test in English book/ sources
4. Use test result
LESSON IV COMPONENT OF CURRICULUM: ASSESSMENT AND TESTING
Barbara E. Walvoord defines assessment as “the systematic collection of information about student learning, using the time, knowledge, expertise, and resources available, in order to inform decision about how to improve learning.”26. Educational assessment is the process of documenting, usually in measurable terms, knowledge, skill, attitudes, and beliefs. It is a tool or method of obtaining information from tests or other sources about the achievement or abilities of individuals. Often used interchangeably with test27. A test is an instrument used to measure a sampling of an individual’s performance as a reflection of his/her ability of a particular domain28. In short, test is an instrument or systematic procedure for measuring a sample of behavior. It usually refers to a specific set of questions or tasks that is administered to an individual or to all members of a group and measures a sample of behavior.
26 Barbara E. Walvoord. Assessment Clear and Simple: A Practical Guide for Institutions, Departments and General Education. John Wiley & Sons, 2004, 2‐3
27 Nelson, Robert; Dawson, Phillip "A contribution to the history of assessment: how a conversation simulator redeems Socratic method". Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education. 2014.
39 (2): 195–204.
28 Djiwandono,M.S. 2008b. Review of Basic Principles and Practice in Language Testing: Some Highlights. Seminar and Workshop in Language Testing for Teachers of English on November 8, 2008 at Faculty of Letters, State University of Malang. . 1
A. Making Decision in Testing 1. Proficiencies Decision
Proficiencies decision applied to comparing the effectiveness of different language program since proficiencies test by definition are general in natural rather than geared to any particular program, they can be used to compare regional branches of particular language program in short, proficiencies decision in volt test that general in natural.
2. Placement decision
Placement decision should be based on instrument with specific program in mine or aid list seriously examine for their appropriateness to specific program the test upon which placement decision are should aider be specifically designed for a given program are aid list carefully examined and selected to reflex the goal and ability lever in the program. This test usually given to a student entering an educational institution to determine specific knowledge or proficiency in various subjects for the purpose of assignment to appropriate courses or classes.
3. Diagnostic decision
Are focused on the strength and weaknesses of each individual vis-a-vis the instructional objectives for purpose of correcting deficiencies before it is to late.
Hence diagnosis decision are aimed add fostering achievement by promoting strength and eliminating weaknesses
4. Achievement decisions
Are central to any language curriculum we are in the business a posturing achievement in the form of language learning. In other word, we can say that achievement test is a standardized test for measuring the skill or knowledge attained by an individual in one or more fields of work or stud
B. Matching Test to Purpose
Language teaching professionals make proficiency, placement, achievement, and diagnostic decisions about their students all the time. To help in developing sound tests for making important decision, it will begin by explaining a clear cut distinction between two major families of tests. It is known that the result of language tests can be interpreted in two different ways, depending on the frame of reference adopted. When test score are interpreted in
relation to the performance of a particular group of individuals, we call it a norm-referenced interpretation. 29
1. Norm-Referenced Test (NRT)
NRT is designed to measure global language abilities (for instance, academic listening ability, reading comprehension, etc). The purpose of an NRT to spread the students out along a continuum score (high to low). The general format of the questions on an NRT is multiple choice, true-false, dictation or essay.
2. Criterion-Referenced Test (CRT)
CRT is produced to measure well defined and fairly specific objectives. These objectives are specific to a particular course, program, school district, or state. The purpose of CRT is to measure the amount of learning that the students has accomplished on each objective. The students would know in advance what types of questions, tasks and content to expect for each objective because the question content would be implied in the objective of the course.
3. Comparing Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Approaches NRT is a test which is designed to measure how the performance of a particular student or group of students compares with the performance of another student or group of students whose scores is given as the norm.
a student’s score is therefore interpreted with the reference to the criterion score, rather than to the scores of other students.30 It is designed to enable the test user to make normative interpretations of test results. Test results are interpreted with reference to the performance of a given group, or norm.”31
Then CRT is a test which measures a student’s performance according to a particular standard or criterion which has been agreed upon.
The student must reach this level of performance to pass the test, and a student’ score is therefore interpreted with the reference to the criterion scores of other students.32 It is designed to enable the test user to interpret test score with reference to a criterion level of ability or domain of content.33
29 James Dean Brown, 1995. The Element of Language Curriculum. . 112
30Ibid., 113
31 Lyle Bachman. 1990. Fundamental Consideration in Language Testing (New York:Oxford University Press. . 72
32James Dean Brown, 1995. The Element of Language Curriculum, . 113
33 Lyle Bachman. 1990. Fundamental Consideration, . 74
The essential difference between these definitions is that the performance of each student on a CRT is compared to a particular standard called a criterion level.
For example: if the acceptable percent of correct answers were set at 70 percent for passing, a student who answered 86 percent of the questions correctly would pass.
On NRT, a student’s performance is compared to the performance s of other students in whatever group has been designated as the norm.
For example: Regardless of the actual number of items correctly answered, if a student scored in the 84th percentile, he or she performed better than 84 out of100 students in the group as a whole.
The key to understanding this difference is implicit in the terms percent and percentile. In administering a CRT, the principal interest is in how much of the material on the test is known by the students. Hence the focus is on the percent of material known, that is, the percent of the questions that the student answered correctly in relation to the material taught in the course and in relationship to a previously established criterion level for passing.34
In administering an NRT, the concerns are entirely different. Here, the focus is on how each student’s performance relates to the scores of all the other students, not on the actual number (percent) of questions that the student answered correctly.
C. Test Designs
Regardless on what facets of language are being tested, an NRT is likely to be relatively long and to be made up of a wide variety of different item types. An NRT usually consist of a view subtests on rather general language skills, for example, reading and listening comprehension, grammar, writing and the like.
These subtests will tend to be relatively long (30-50 items) and cover a wide variety of different test items.
In comparison, CRTs are much more likely to be made up of numerous, but shorter subtests. Each of the subtests will usually represent a different instructional objective for the given course-with one subtest for each objective. For example, if a course has 12 instructional objective, the CRT associated with that course might have 12 subtests (although sometime only a subsample of an objectives will be tested).
34 James Dean Brown . 1995. The Element of Language Curriculum, . 113
D. Student’s Knowledge of the Questions
Because of the general nature of what NRTs are testing and usual wide variety of items, students rarely know in any details what types of items to expect. The students might know what item formats they will encounter, for example, multiple-choice grammar items, but seldom will they be able to predict actual language points. On CRTs, students should probably know what language points will be tested, as well as what item types to expect.35
This table can illustrate those points:
Differences between Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Test No Characteristics Norm-Referenced Criterion-Referenced 1. Used to measure General language
abilities or proficiencies
Specific language points based on course objectives 2. Purpose of
testing
Spread students out along a continuum of abilities or proficiencies
Assess the amount of material known by each student
3. Distribution of scores
Normal distribution Students can all score 100 percent if they know the material or the skill 4. Test design A few long subtests
with similar items throughout
Numerous short, clearly defined subtests, each testing one objective 5. Student’s
knowledge of test questions
Have no idea what types of questions to expect
Know exactly what content to expect on test
E. Matching Tests to Decision Purposes Test
qualities
Proficienc
y Placement Achievement Diagnosis Detail of
information
Very general
General Specific Very specific Focus General Learning Instructional Instructional
35 James Dean Brown . 1995. The Element of Language Curriculum., . 116
skills prerequisit e to
program entry
points drawn from entire program
objectives of course or program
objectives of course or program
Purpose of decision
Compare individual overall with other groups/ind ividuals
Find each student’s appropriate level
Determine amount of learning with regard to program objectives
Inform students and teachers of objectives that still need work Type of
comparison
Compariso n with other institutions
Comparison within program
Comparison to course or program objectives
Comparison to course or program objectives When
administere d
Before entry or at the end of program
Beginning of program
End of courses
Beginning or middle of courses Interpretati
on of score
Spread of scores
Spread of scores
Degree to which objectives have been learned
Degree to which
objectives have been learned
Type of test NRT NRT CRT CRT
The first column of that table indicates test qualities that very for the four types of decisions. The decision/test types are labeled across the top of the table and range from proficiency to placement to achievement to diagnosis. The table indicates:
First, that there are differences in the degree to which the information provided by the test is general or specific.
Second, the focus of each of these types of tests differs from general skills prerequisite for the program to very detailed analysis of student’s ability to perform on instructional objectives.
Third, these four types of decision/test differ in the purposes of the decisions for which they were designed.
Fourth, the types of comparison can range from comparison with other institutions to direct comparisons of each student’s performance on each of the course or program objectives.
Fifth, indicates when the decision/test made.
Sixth, indicates the interpretation of score of the test results.36 F. Adopt, Develop, and Adapt Language Test
1. Adopting language test
The tests that are used for program decision are very often bought from commercial publishing houses. Tests are also sometimes adopted from other language programs or taken straight from current textbook.
Selecting good tests that match the specific needs of a program is therefore important. Test review can be found in the review sections of some language teaching journal.
Alternative ways to approach the task of selecting tests for a program might include:
a. Taking a language testing course b. Reading up on testing
c. Hiring a person who already know about testing
d. Giving one number of the staff release time to become informed on the topic37
2. Developing language test
Sufficient resources and expertise will be available in a program so that proficiency, placement, achievement, and diagnostic tests can be developed and fitted to the specific goals of the program and to the specific population studying in it.
Decision must be made about which types of the tests to develop first. It means that developing achievement and diagnostic tests, temporarily adopting previously published proficiency and placement test.
38
3. Adapting language test
The process of adapting a test to a specific situation will probably involve some variant of the following strategy:
a. Administer the test to the students in the program
36 Ibid., . 118
37 Ibid., 120
38 Ibid., 122
