CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents the previous after the through and in-depthsearch done by the researchers. This will also present the review of clitic analysis, function of clitics and types of clitics in Sherlock Holmes Novel by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. A.Previous Study
Previous study is the position of the thesis that was done by the researcher. It means, the researcher can know the research same or not, and also previous study help the researcher to conduct research. So, the researcher can do research better than before. The researcher has found a few previous studies that are concerned with research above;
1. Fahad Alotaiby, Salah Foda and Ibrahim (2010) entitled “Clitcs in Arabic Language : A Stastical Study”. In this study, the researchers findings the a statistical study of clitics and the effect in Arabic Language. The researchers used tokenizer to examine the performance. There were 600 million words Arabic corpus, and when applying clitics tokenization the corresponding lexicon size could be reduced by 25.54%.1
Differences from this study which researcher study were specifically examined of clitic in Arabic, and from the writer had been research is clitic in English. From the research problem, the previous study the problems were statistical study of clitics and the effect in Arabic Language. From this study the researcher problem were the types and
1
http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/Y10-1068, November 3rd, 2016. 13.29
function of English English clitics in His Last Bow of Sherlock Holmes Novel by Sir Arhur Conan Doyle.
2. Ana Alexandra Ribeiro Luis (2004) entitled “Clitics as Morphology” . The study represented the morphological behaviour of pronominal clitics in European Portuguese (EP) and to develop an inflectional account of cliticisation within the theory of Paradigm-Function Morphology (Stump 2001).2
Differences with this study were the clitics analysis was research about morphological clitics in European Portuguese and inflectional to theory Paradigm-Function Morphology, and the research problem about type of clitics and function of English clitics in novel.
3. Research was from Stephen R. Anderson (2010) entitled “Clitics”. Result of previous study was clitics have the character of being incompletely organized in prosodic terms: they are deficient in not constituting PWords, as opposed to normal lexical items. Once that is taken into account, the rest of their behavior follows from the prosodic phonology of the language.3
Differences from this study and previous of the study, there won‟t be any confusion to differenciate clitics and non-clitics. The researcher analysis about clitics in novel with findings type and function about it.
Related to the previous studies above, the writer is interested to conduct the study entitled “English Clitics Analysis in Sherlock Holmes
2
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.136.8557&rep=rep1&type=pdf January 22nd, 2016. 07.57
3
Novel By Sir Arthur Conan Doyle”. The similarity of this study is about
analysis of type and function of clitics in Sherlock Holmes Novel by Sir Arhur Conan Doyle.
B. Nature of Clitics
In this sub-chapter, the researcher presented the definition of clitics with some related theories.
Clitics in morphology is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics of a word, but depends phonologically on another word or phrase.4 In this theories the clitics was part of morpheme in word with followed the phonologically.
„Clitic‟ (from Greek κλίνειν „incline, lean‟) is the term in traditional grammar for a word that cannot bear primary word stress and thus „leans‟ on an
adjacent stress-bearing word (the clitic host). 5 A clitic leaning on a following word is a „proclitic‟; one learning on a preceding word is an „enclitic‟. Clitics
exhibit characteristics of both words and affixes and yet do not fall fully into either category: they are “like single-word syntactic constituents in that they
function as heads, arguments, or modifiers within phrases,but like affixes in that they are „dependent‟, in some way or another, on adjacent words.6
4
http://www-01.sil.org/linguistics/glossaryoflinguisticterms/whatisacliticgrammar.htm ( Oct, 30. 2016 )
5
Robert D. Holmstedt(The University of Toronto) and Bezalel Elan Dresher(The University of Toronto)
6
Arnold Zwicky7, in his study of clitics, identified three classes: special clitics, simple clitics, and bound words. Both special and simple clitics are unaccented bound variants of stresse-free morphemes; both types share the semantics and basic phonological core of their respective free forms, but special clitics differ with regard to syntax from their free forms, whereas simple clitics exhibit syntax identical to that of their free variants. Bound words do not have a free variant: this type of clitic exists only in an unaccented form with another word serving as its attachment host. Zwicky notes that bound words are often “associated with an entire constituent while being phonologically attached to one word of this constituent” and are typically- attached “at the margins of the word, standing outside even inflectional affixes”.8
Pradepp Kumar Das9, in his study a clitic is a type of obligatory bound morph which is generally distinguished from affixes in the literature. The clitic is called a bound morph and it seems to occupy an intermediate position between an affix and a word.
Andrew Spencer and Anna R. Luis, from their book Clitic is in most languages we find „little words‟ which resemble a full word, but which cannot stand on their own. Instead they have to „lean on‟ a neighbouring word, like the
’d, ’ve and unstressed ’em of Kim’d’ve helped’em („Kim would have helped
7
Zwicky, Arnold M. 1977. On clitics . Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Linguistics Club. 1985. “Clitics and particles”.
8
Anderson, Stephen R. 2005. Aspects of the theory of clitics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.(www.euppublishing.com/doi/pdfplus/10.3366/E1750124509000348)
9
them‟). These are clitics, and they are found in most of the world‟s languages.
In English the clitic forms appear in the same place in the sentence that the full form of the word would appear in, but in many languages clitics obey quite separate rules of placement.
From the defintion the researcher argues that clitics was the classification of words in morpheme and part of bound morpheme in linguistic. Where has two type (proclitic and enclitic) and two function (verbal function and other function) of clitics.
C. Types Of Clitic
In this part the researcher will be declare about type of clitics with other theories.
a. Proclitic
A proclitic is a clitic that precedes the word to which it is phonologically joined.10 Example : The English article the, when unstressed and with a reduced vowel, is a proclitic, as in the following:
the house
b. Enclitic
An enclitic is a clitic that is phonologically joined at the end of a preceding word to form a single unit.11 Example : The English negative morpheme not becomes an enclitic when de-stressed and joined to the preceding auxiliary verb, as in the following:
can’t
won’t
shouldn’t
2. According to Crystal, clitics fall into various categories depending on their position in relation to the word to which they are connected. The clitics is devided into four groups, proclitic, enclitic, mesoclitic and endoclitic. a. Proclitic : A proclitic appears before its host. It is common in
Romance languages. For example, in novel “I am glad you found the note, since it corroborates my story,” said he. (Page 689)12
10
Crystal 1980 : 64
11
Mish, 1991 :409
12
b. Enclitic : An enclitic appears after its host. For example, in novel “It has been a long evening, and I don’t think my nerve is a good as it was”. (page 694)
c. Mesoclitic : A mesoclitic appears between the stem of the host and other affixes. For example, in novel “ I am glad you found the note”(page 689).
d. Endoclitic : The endoclitic splits apart the root and is inserted between the two pieces. Endoclitics defy the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis (or Lexicalist Hypothesis) and so were long claimed to be impossible. However, evidence from the Udi language suggests that they exist.13The endoclitic splits apart the root and is inserted between the two pieces.
From some of the theory above, researcher found differences and similarities in the type of clitics. For the first theory, there were two type of clitics and for the second theory there were four type of clitics. But, the analysis results, with the most widely used, only two types. While the rest, not overused. From this, the researcher concluded in this research there were two types of clitics. There were proclitic with the word the and enclitic with the word don’t,didn’t, don’t .
13
D. Function of Clitics
In this chapter we give an overview of the main functions of clitics. Most clitics are straight forward function words, and so their functions are virtually the same as the functions of inflectional morphology and of fullform function words generally across languages. The researcher will summarize the major functions, concentrating on broadly verbal properties, clausal properties (which are similar to the verbal properties), nominal properties and „other‟
properties. The researcher briefly illustrate the parity of function between clitics and inflections by pointing up instances of inflection which parallel the clitics we have discussed. One of the reasons why this comparison is important is because inflections are generally thought to arise in historical language change through a stage of cliticization.
Although the parallels between clitics and inflections are close, there are one or two differences in patterning, too. One important class of words which often become clitics is adverbials, with meanings such as here, there,
a. Verbal Function
The functional categories associated with verbs include tense, aspect and mood marking as well as polarity (i.e., negation), in addition to agreement properties derived from pronouns, such as person, number, gender, animacy, definiteness and so on. Many languages have inflections that indicate the speaker‟s attitude to the truth of a statement; for instance,
whether the speaker knows a fact from personal experience, from inference or from hearsay. Some languages have different inflections on the verb depending on whether are making a statement (declarative mood) or asking a question (interrogative mood). These categories are also often realized by clitics.
The English clitic auxiliary system is one of the most well-known instances of a clitic system, and the researcher used the example of the auxiliary ’s to introduce the notion of clitic . See examples of full form auxiliaries and their clitic equivalents from the novel:
(1) Mr. Jabez Wilson‟s presence; in other word, that they had completed their tunnel.14
(2) “You‟ll want it,”said young Alec Cunningham.15 (3) “Yes, I‟ve had a busy day,”I answered.16
In each case we have an auxiliary verb which can be expressed by a phonologically reduced form consisting of a single consonant (possibly syllabic, and possibly preceded by schwa). The position of the clitic in the
14
Loc.cit Page 48
15
Loc.cit Page 340
16
phrase corresponds to the position of the full form auxiliary (it comes immediately after the subject of the clause in these examples).
These reduced auxiliary forms don‟t resemble affixes very much.
First, it would be unusual (but not impossible) for a tense/aspect/mood
affix to attach to a noun. More importantly, however, we have seen that the reduced form attaches to words of any category.
In the auxiliary attaches respectively to an adverb there, a preposition to, a pronoun him, a verb (but part of a relative clause modifying the subject noun) and an adjective responsible. True affixes are generally very selective about the word class they attach to and never show this degree of freedom.
From this brief survey of auxiliaries from four typical properties of clitics:
1. Clitics are generally unstressed (and unstressable). Even in languages which lack a category of word stress, we find that clitics are elements that cannot be focussed or emphasized by being given special emphatic accent.
2. Clitics require a host to attach to. Either the clitic attaches to the right of a host (enclitic) or to the left (proclitic).
3. Clitics attach promiscuously, that is, they do not select words of a particular class.
separate principles from the syntax of the rest of the language (special clitics, for instance 2P clitics), in other cases the basic position of the clitic is the same as that of a full-form word with similar function (simple clitics), but in practice there may be restrictions that apply specifically to clitics because of their need to attach to a host in a particular direction.
b. Clausal Properties
Examples of properties expressed by clitics that relate to the clause as a whole, though to some extent it is artificial to distinguish these from verbal clitics, because properties of the clause tend to be expressed on verbs in inflection. In each case the researcher will provide just one or two properties that distinguish the clitic from a full word or an affix.
c. Nominal Function
Clitics can express typical nominal functions such as case, definiteness, possessor agreement and (more rarely) number. In many languages possession is indicated by means of an affix on the possessor noun, usually known as a genitive case marker.
d. Argument Function
1. Argument and agreement marking
marking and agreement can also be encoded by clitics. Clitics with this function are called pronominal clitics and generally express person, number, gender and case features.
2. Argument clitics
When pronominal clitics function as arguments they occur in complementary distribution with overt subjects or objects, satisfying the subcategorization properties of the verb they are semantically related to. Subjects and objects often behave differently in one and the same language, and look separately at object clitics and subject clitics. The researcher first consider instances in which the clitics function more or less like a pronoun in English, in that they express the argument of the verb on their own, and cannot co-occur with a full-form word bearing the same function.
e. Other Function
The researcher conclude with a few examples of clitics subserving functions which are not normally thought of as inflectional (though they can be realized with inflections in other languages).
1. Conjunction and Preposition
It‟s very common for highly frequent conjunctions such as “and”, “or” and “but”. Some languages, however, have conjunctions
2. Adverbs
The y clitic is somewhat unusual, in that it is the only clitic in French with such an adverbial function. There is no clitic form of ici
„here‟, for instance. Moreover, although the clitic systems of Romance
languages tend to be fairly uniform, with similar forms and functions, some of the Romance languages lack such adverbial clitics. They are lacking in Spanish and Portuguese, but Italian, Catalan and Provençal/Occitan have a similar „there‟ clitic, and Sardinian has no less than three locative clitics.17
3. Discourse Function
Discourse particles are words which convey rhetorical effects, emphasis, the attitude of the speaker and so on, often in ways that are extremely difficult to pin down. In English they are represented by about a hundred expressions of the kind actually, well, you know, sort-of, then, in fact, after all, as in Well, they were actually going to leave sort of earlier, you know. Such particles have been studied within the rubric of pragmatics18 and especially in Conversation Analysis19 which has devoted considerable research effort to unravelling the functions of particles in turn-taking and in attitudinal factors in discourse. In some languages, discourse particles play such an important role that their study has entered the pedagogic tradition, and second-language learners
17
(Jones 1993).
18
Blakemore 2002
19
are expected to study them as part of the grammar of the language. This is true of Classical (though not Modern) Greek20 Russian21 and especially German22.
In many languages, the conversational or discourse particles are essentially adverbs. However, in many languages, words of this sort can turn into clitics. This type of clitic is similar to the adverbial type in many respects, and, like the adverbials, the discourse clitics tend not to correspond to inflectional categories.
Variety of functions which can be expressed by full-form function words, by affixes or other morphological devices, or by something in between, namely clitics. The principal nominal properties, clitics frequently express case, possession and definiteness. The verbal categories, clitics regularly express Tense-Aspect-Mood (TAM) categories, including such categories as interrogative mood and negation. A particularly important category is that of pronominal argument, which often turns into a kind of agreement system. This was discuss pronominal clitics in a good deal of detail at various points in this research. Finally, the researcher also seen that clitics often realize meanings that are realized by locative or temporal adverbs or by various kinds of discourse marker expressing evidentiality or other discourse- and context-related meanings. All of these meanings and functions can
20
(cf. Denniston 2002)
21
(Vasil‟eva, 1974)
22
be seen in inflectional systems, reflecting the well-known fact that inflections generally arise when clitics become morphologized as affixes.
1. Clitics express functional (inflectional) categories or discourse functions.
2. Clitics are generally unstressed (and unstressable). 3. Clitics require a host to attach to.
4. Clitics show low selectivity towards their host (promiscuous attachment).
5. Clitics typically appear in rigidly ordered clusters (templates). 6. Clitics and clitic clusters often have different syntax from
fully-fledged words. A particularly common phenomenon is the 2P clitic (cluster), in which the clitics have to be placed after the first constituent (word/phrase) of the phrase or clause they relate to.
7. Pronominal clitics often serve as the argument of the verb, but in some languages the clitics can be doubled by full noun phrases, giving the appearance of subject-verb or object-verb agreement.
In conclusion of this chapter, the researcher was finding two type of clitics. There were proclitic and enclitic. Proclitic with the example : “But his narrative was nipped in thebud” (page 684). From the sentence in word “the” categorized
I beg” (page 723). From the sentence in word “Don’t” categorized in enclitic.
For the next was the function. The researcher findings two function of clitics, there were verbal function and other function. Verbal function with example : “That’s the agreement” (page 699). From the sentence in word “That’s”
categorized in verbal function. For the other function with example : “He swelled
and puffed in his anger (page 684). From the sentence in word “and”
categorized in other function. E. Example of Clitics in a Novel
This is example of clitics in a Novel. The writer give other novel to example and analysis.
Anna Karenina
225 of 1759
...light of the lamp post. She looked round, and the same instant recognized Vronsky‟s face. Putting his hand to the peak of his cap, he bowed to her and
him, she was seized by a feeling of joyful pride. She had no need to ask why he had come. she knew as certainly as if he had told her that he was here to be where she was.
„I didn‟t know you were going. What are you coming for?‟ she said,
letting fall the hand with which she had grasped the door post. And irrepressible delight and eagerness shone in her face.
Anna Karenina
349 of 1759
Chapter 14
As he rode up to the house in the happiest frame of mind, Levin heard the bell ring at the side of the principalentrance of the house. „Yes, that‟s someone from the railway station,‟ he thought, „just the time to be here from the Moscow train...Who could it be? What if it‟s brother Nikolay? He did say: „Maybe I‟ll go to the waters, or maybe I‟ll come down to you.‟‟ He felt dismayed and vexed for the first minute, that his brother Nikolay‟s presence
flinging up both his hands. „Here‟s a delightful visitor! Ah, how glad I am to see you!‟ he shouted, recognizing Stepan Arkadyevitch.
Anna Karenina
1211 of 1759
„So you‟re not tired? Learn more on me,‟ said he. „No, I‟m so glad of a chance of being alone with you,
and I must own, though I‟m happy with them, I do regret our winter evenings alone.‟
„That was good, but this is even better. Both are better,‟ he said, squeezing
her hand.
„Do you know what we were talking about when you came in?‟ „About jam?‟
„Oh, yes, about jam too; but afterwards, about how men make offers.‟
„Ah!‟ said Levin, listening more to the sound of her voice than to the words
she was saying, and all the while paying attention to the road, which passed now through the forest, and avoiding places where she might make a false step.
„And about Sergey Ivanovitch and Varenka. You‟ve noticed?... I‟m very anxious for it,‟ she went on. „What do you think about it?‟ And she peeped
into his face.
„I don‟t know what to think,‟ Levin answered, smiling.
Note : you‟re the red word of the box above, it is one example from the writer to analysis clitics of novel.
F. Framework of Thinking
This sub-chapter the researcher presented the framework of thinking
In framework of thinking above the researcher analysis in English clitics and the tittle novel was His Last Bow in Sherlock Holmes novel by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. The researcher was findings problem of type were, proclitic (the) and enclitic (don’t). For the function the researcher was finding verbal function (‘ll ) and other function (and). In conclusion, there were two types and two function of clitics by researcher.
English Clitics Analysis of His Last Bow in Sherlock Holmes Novel by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
Novel Clitics
His Last Bow in Sherlock Holmes Novel
Proclitic
Type of clitics Function of clitics
Verbal function
Thehouse
Enclitic Other
function
I don’t like you
I’ll see it in my
dream He swelled and puffed in his
