CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A.Students with Autism
The term of “Autism” comes from the word “auto” the meaning of “auto” is alone. Children with autism are children who separate themselves
from their environment, they inclined busy with their own playing without any care with the condition around them (Geniofam (2010) cited by Wulandari, 2012:70). According to Ministry of Education Special Programs Branch British Columbia (2000:3) autism is a condition of people who have disabilities that can prevent that people to understand what they see, hear, and use the other senses well.
This case may results another problems such as social relationship, communication, and behavior, so before we determine someone included to the autism. Firstly, we have to know the characteristics of the symptoms which have by children.
There are four characteristics which are associated with Autism. Those are communication characteristics, social interaction characteristics, unusual behavior characteristics, and learning characteristics (Ministry of Education Special Programs Branch British Columbia, 2000:9).
1. Communication Characteristics
Almost all students with autism have problem in communication because autistic students have difficulties in producing language (Wulandari, 2012:68). The difficulties of language which owned by autistic students were clearly describe by Ministry of Education Special Programs Branch British Columbia (2000: 9-11) such as difficulties with non-verbal communication. Students with autism commonly show inappropriate facial expressions, unusual use of gestures, lack of eye contact, strange body gesture, and lack of mutual or focus attention. They also have significant differences in producing oral language. They produce odd pitch or intonation, faster or slower than normal students, unusual rhythm and stress, monotone or lilting voice quality. The student with autism also have some problems in vocabularies. The vocabularies dominated by nouns and limited in social functions. The difficulties in pragmatics of conversation such as problem in initiating the communication, difficulty in using unwritten rules, inability to maintain conversation on a topic, inappropriate interrupting, and inflexibility in style of conversation, stereotypic style of speaking. Pusponegoro (2007) cited by Wulandari (2012:73) described the characteristic of autistic students likes imitating what the other speak and some of them also can memorize many words and song without understanding the meaning.
remembering a sequence of instructions, but those difficulties will vary among individuals. It is depend on the level of intelligence. Student who can not communicate to other people well, they also cannot do interaction with other people because communication is a way to do other interaction with environment.
2. Social Interaction Characteristics
Autistic students have difficulties in building relationship in their environment because they cannot do communication well. It makes the students feel difficult in doing interaction with other people.
Students with autism demonstrate some differences in social interaction and often have difficulty in establishing relationships. The lack of effective communication may result from inability to distill social information from the social interaction and use appropriate communication skill to respond. Language processing and non-verbal communication are often cause problems in social interaction”. It is show
that communication skill has important role in doing social interaction (Ministry of Education Special Programs Branch British Columbia, 2000:11).
with autism may not be able to understand that another people is sad. Those problems called as “Theory of mind” (Baron-Cohren cited by Ministry of Education Special Programs Branch British Columbia (2000:11-12).
Theory of mind is the kind of condition which owned by people with autism in understanding the condition of their mental and others (Haryanto, 2008:20-21). This case can prevent students’ relationship in society and their language development. Without any interests and motivations to do interactions with other, students cannot understand what the others feel.
Students with autism often busy with toys and objects in unusual. Some of them may produce unusual laughing or giggling. Some children with autism may play near others, but they do not share and take turns, while others may withdraw entirely from social interactions. The types of social interaction of students with autism can be classified into three types such as aloof, passive, and active but odd (Ministry of Education Special Programs Branch British Columbia, 2000:12).
others, but they often have unusual way to get people attention. Students with autism have unusual behavior when they do interaction with other people.
3. Unusual behavior
People with autism often demonstrate unusual and distinctive behaviors likes, restricted range of interests, imitating others, flapping, finger flicking, rocking, spinning, walking on tiptoes, and spinning object. They become so interest when they see a movement such as the spinning of fan or turning wheels on toys and they also show up unusual responses to sensory stimuli. Sometimes, they are very sensitive of touch or contact. If they listen to very load sound they will close their ears. The students with autism also have disorder in emotion. They laugh, cry, and angry without any reason (Wulandari, A., 2012:73).
4. Learning characteristics
The characteristics of children with autism can be so various, it depends on the disabilities of the child. It becomes important to be known by the teachers because each students have different needs in education, so the teachers can consider which strategies that can be used to teach in the class with various characteristics (Hidayat, 2009:3). By providing proper education can lead the children to develop their ability.
B.English Language Teaching for Students in the Mainstream Classes
Language is one of the important aspect in communication, by using language people can interact each other and they get so many information from their environment. Language is words that used to refer human’s way
of communicating (Jendra, 2012:1). It means that people who cannot produce language, they cannot communicate with others well. In this case related to the problems which owned by autistic students.
In this research, the condition of students are not only normal students, but students with autism also will be taught in one class. Almost all of students with autism have problem in communication because they have difficulties in producing language (Wulandari, 2012:68).
The less motivation to improve their ability from their environment, it can cause this problem. Widodo (2003) cited by Wulandari, A. (2012:74) said that if the environment does not support children to be motivated, they cannot improve their ability. Although it is hard, this way is needed to make them can live independently in their environment.
Indonesian government declared A Law of Indonesian Republic number 8/2016 about the rights of people with disabilities. In sections one, two, and ten, the Law describes about the rights of people with disabilities in getting Inclusive Education.
Inclusive education is about full participation all of learners in educational system. Both of normal and special needs students are engaged in learning process in one school which called as inclusive school (The Ministry of Education New Zealand government, 2014:1). Every inclusive schools have to consider the facilities which are needed for each kinds of students because the students with disabilities have different needs from the other normal students (Abdullah, 2012:8).
Meanwhile, in 2008 the total numbers of children with special needs until 26 thousand, said Sarwadi a supervisor of Special Needs Education Department Central Java province.
There are some regular schools are forced to accept the students with special needs, although the schools are not ready become Inclusive Schools. Morrison (1988:355) described the case of teaching students with disability in regular classroom as Teaching Student in the Mainstream.
Mainstream school means, the special needs child will be educated in the regular school classroom for part of the school day. In another sense, mainstreaming means the school are returning special needs children to the system from which they have been excluded for over three-quarter of century. Until recently, it was acceptable, and thought to be educationally sound, legal, and humane, to provide education for special needs children outside the regular classroom. It is no longer justifiable to do so if the child can get benefit from the educational program in the classrooms. The concept of mainstream school is normalcy. It means, that students will be treated and educated as normally as possible (Morrison, 1998:355-356).
1. Have a well thought-out philosophy of education. This is very important, no matter what kind of children you teach, it is absolutely necessary to think through attitudes toward the handicapped.
2. Know the nature of the handicapped children that will be teaching. It is important to know normal childhood growth and development. It is essential for the teachers to know about the different handicaps and how to account in teaching and learning process.
3. Requires individualized education for the handicapped child or special needs child. Developing a program for individual child is not the same as individualized instruction, knowing the differences between the two and how to conduct both processes makes sense pedagogically.
4. Methods and techniques of diagnostic and prescriptive teaching are essential as basis for writing and implementing the individualized education program.
5. Working with parents is an absolute for classroom teacher. The teachers should learn about parent conferences, communication, involvement, and parents as volunteers and aides.
7. As more individual education becomes a reality, the teachers will need skill in assessing the students’ behavior.
8. The teachers must know how to identify sources of and how to order and use, a board range of instructional materials, and media.
Accepting students with autism in a regular school becomes a difficult decision for parents, teachers, and also for the students (Hidayat, 2009:2). The teachers have to prepare the students to socialize in their class together with the others normal students. The teachers also have to consider each material, method and strategy which are appropriate to the condition of class. The fact, there are still some school which have problem in handling the students with autism in the regular class.
There is a social gap in the regular schools which accept the autistic students. The gap can be seen from the facility in the learning process. Some schools do not facilitate the students with autism to develop their ability, so the students cannot achieve the learning objectives (Hidayat, 2009:2).
(2015) the national education goal should be appropriate to the five basic principles of the Republic of Indonesia (Pancasila).
Jakarta, (2015) Kemendikbud --- Peringatan Hari Pendidikan Nasional
(Hardiknas) tahun ini mengambil tema ‘Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan sebagai Gerakan Pencerdasan dan Penumbuhan Generasi Berkarakter Pancasila’. Gerakan Pencerdasan dan penumbuhan generasi berkarakter Pancasila adalah sebuah ikhtiar mengembalikan kesadaran tentang pentingnya karakter Pancasila dalam pendidikan Indonesia. Demikian disampaikan Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan (Mendikbud), Anies Baswedan, saat memberikan pidato pada Upacara Peringatan Hari Pendidikan Nasional 2015, di kantor Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan (Kemendikbud), Jakarta, Sabtu (2/5/2015). Mendikbud mengungkapkan, pendidikan bertujuan untuk mengembangkan potensi peserta didik agar menjadi manusia yang beriman, bertaqwa kepad Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, berakhlak mulia, sehat, berilmu, cakap, kreatif, mandiri dan menjadi warga negara yang demokratis serta bertanggung jawab. “Itulah karakter Pancasila yang menjadi tujuan Pendidikan Nasional,” ujarnya.
Then, how the teachers can achieve the education goal, if the condition of the class like the problem above. Ford (2013:5) said there are three strategies that can be used by the teachers in teaching students in the mainstream. Those are Co-Teaching, Differentiated Instruction, and Peer Mediated Instruction and Intervention. The next explanations in this chapter, the researcher will explain about three strategies above.
C.Teaching Strategies for Students with Autism in the Mainstream
1. Co-Teaching
Co-teaching means, working together with special education teacher to support the students with disabilities. Vaughn, Schumm, and Arguelles (1997) in Ford (2013:6-7) described five models for co-teaching.
support for students who need it. The advantages of this model is both of types of students (students with and without disabilities) can receive assistance on challenging material.
The second model of co-teaching is station teaching. Station Teaching is a kind of grouping model. Students are divided into three groups, two groups working with one of two teachers and one group working independently. Each group will have chance to work independently. Because in this model the students will divided into three small groups, it can make the students easier in understanding the instruction from the teacher.
The third model is parallel teaching. In parallel teaching before the teachers teach the students in the same class together. They have to make lessons plan together, then they divide the students into two groups. Each teacher will teach one group. By using this model not only the students who get benefits from working in small groups, but also the teachers can get benefits by learning from the other teachers.
with disabilities and the other students struggling with challenging material can receive additional direct instruction.
The fifth model in co-teaching is team teaching. In this model, before the teachers teach together in one class, they have to prepare plans and strategy that will be implemented in that class. All activities are planned by the teachers together. In team teaching, each teacher may take turns in leading instruction or modeling student behavior. Students with disabilities can learn well from having behavior modeled.
2. Differentiated Instruction
Differentiated instruction is a kind of teaching strategy which gives attention to the diversities of students. In differentiated instruction the students will treated with methods and materials that are appropriate to their needs (Scruggs, Mastropieri, and Marshak, 2012 cited in Ford, 2013:8). To achieve the the learning objectives in the classes which consist of diversity level and condittion of students, the teacher need a good preparation.
confident in their teaching because they have plan about what and how they teach (Morrison, 1998:363).
Other point of differentiated instruction is the teachers in the class should be consist of regular teacher and special teacher, so the teaching and learning process will become flexible in adjusting the curriculum and students need.
There are four principles of differentiated instruction such as, focus on the concept and learning material, the evaluation of readiness and students’ development accommodated in curriculum, grouping of students flexibly, the students as active explorer (Mukti and Saayekti, 2003:37 cited by Amin, 2009:59-60).
1. Focus on the Concept and Learning Material
There are four considerations in choosing learning materials. First, the learning materials should be appropriate to the learning objective. Second, the learning materials should be appropriate to the students’ level. Third, the learning materials should be organized and
mutually sustainable with the previous material. Fourth, learning materials should include things that are factual and conceptual. 2. The Evaluation of Readiness and Students Development
Accommodated in Curriculum
readiness and understanding by giving support and additional guidance for students who need it.
3. Grouping of Students Flexibly
In differentiated instruction grouping students in heterogeneous level is needed. Each student can learn from their friends who have good comprehension in materials.
4. The Students as Active Explorer
The goal of this strategy is not only make the students comprehend the materials, but also make the students to learn independently. The roles of teachers as facilitator, motivator, and guide.
3. Peer-Mediated Instructions and Intervention
The last strategy is peer-mediated instruction and intervention. The main activity in this strategy is using students as instructors for other students in the class and also use modeling in teaching. The teachers in this strategy have role as facilitators. Peer-intermediated instructions can be direct like tutoring, the aim is to improve the academic development. Indirect instructions can use model in teaching, the aim is social-emotional development (Kalfus, 1984 cited by Ford, 2013:9).
D.Basic Assumptions
developmental disabilities that can prevent the people to see, hear, and uses the other senses well. Students with autism and normal students have different needs, so it can be a challenge for teachers who teach both of students in one class. The teachers should consider the appropriate strategies that can be used to teach in that class. There are three kinds of strategies which can be used to teach the students in mainstream classes. Those are, co-teaching, differentiated instructions, peer-intermediated instructions and intervention. The appropriate strategies can help both of students to achieve the learning objectives. By conducting a case study research about English language teaching strategies in the mainstream classes. The researcher assumed by using three kinds of strategies in teaching the students in the mainstream classes. The teachers could help the students not only achieve the learning objectives, but also improve their abilities.
E.Relevant Studies
explained more about materials and teaching methods which are appropriate to teach autistic students, but there are some significant differences between this research and the previous research.
The differences can be seen from the condition of school and the aim of research. In this research, the school that used by the researcher as research place is a regular school or school for normal students we can call it as mainstream school because this school is not inclusive school. That’s why this research belongs to case study research.
