Chapter 4: An evaluation of Sallie McFague's body of God cosmology
4.4 The relational cosmology of the body of God model: the universe as organism
4.4.3 A modification of McFague's cosmology and metaphysic
example are bodies with a complex mental infrastructure that allows for an extremely high degree of subjectivity. They are therefore able to make decisions and form opinions about reality. Human beings have a high capacity for novelty, because they can make decisions that allow them to change. They are in continuity with creation by virtue of their embodiment, but different from it due to their high level of subjectivity. McFague believes matter is the source of mind and thus privileges the former over the latter (: 46). The problem with McFague's embodiment metaphysic is that it fails to show how bodies change and how they differ from each other. The result of this is that everything in the universe is reduced to body. McFague herself suggests that an over emphasis on body may result in reductionism when she asserts,
in the organic model (or 'mutualistic' model-a term that avoids the suggestion of reducing life to bodies which is implied in 'organic') all entities are subjects as well as objects (1987: 11) (Emphasis the researcher's)
McFague may argue that the body model is a metaphor and thus not a description of reality. A metaphor uses what is familiar to human beings so that they may understand what they cannot experience. But what is familiar to human beings is that they consist of body and mind in continuum. It thus appears reasonable to assert that if human beings are body-mind and are interconnected with nature, then everything in the universe is body-mind.
McFague does not use the term heterarchy, her cosmology seems to imply it, because of its focus on relationship. An egalitarian view of the universe sounds promising, as it stresses the equality and intrinsic value of all creatures. Those who follow such a train of thought may oppose hierarchy, but the problem with this is that the sciences signify the notion of a natural hierarchy within the natural order. Egalitarian thinkers are correct to oppose social hierarchies that lead to domination, but face opposition when denying a natural hierarchy. This is a problem in McFague's body of God cosmology. While McFague stresses the need to take insights from contemporary science seriously, she is not emphatic about a central conjecture from the sciences: there exists a natural hierarchy of complexity.
Wilber raises this issue as well. He maintains science connects wholeness and hierarchy (: 16).
Wholeness and hierarchy cannot exist independently from each other, as the latter organises the former. While a whole may be constituted by the interactions of its parts, it is not on their level. Wilber believes that hierarchies as understood from the perspective of the natural sciences; demonstrate an increasing capacity for wholeness (1998: 67). A hierarchy is not reversible. Holism increments as the hierarchy is ascended. For instance human beings contain cells, but cells don't contain human beings. A whole is able to transcend and include its parts.
Wilber describes this agency as enfolding. A senior unit is thus able to enfold its constituents and then add something novel. When this occurs the unit emerges into something particular that differentiates it from its lower levels. In this manner higher levels are unique in
comparison to their lower levels, because they have something not found in their predecessors.
Such an approach remains faithful to an ecological sensibility, because the whole is greater that the sum of its parts. For Wilber the term greater is synonymous with hierarchy. Hierarchy is fundamentally a principle that structures reality (1995: 18). Hierarchies do not have a linear design, but may be better described as nested. In other words hierarchies may be understood as a series of concentric circles. This means that they run in multiple directions. These insights show reality to be dynamic.
This raises the issue of causation. A whole is able to influence how its parts function. It provides principles of integration and structure that connect the parts together. Without these principles the parts become fragmented. The whole therefore allows its parts to have
commonality with each other. In this manner a whole may be understood as a unifier of the parts. The interaction between a whole and its parts that has been described thus far is a form
of top-down causation (: 20). An example of this would be when a human being decides to wave his or her hand at someone. The mind tells the hand to move by means impulse conduction pulses that run to atoms and molecules in it. The mind in this instance is a whole and the atoms and molecules are parts. The former is a higher level organisation and the latter a lower level unit.
There is also upward causation in hierarchies. It was noted before that a whole also includes its parts. In other words the whole is constituted by its parts and includes their function. For example an organism embraces cells that embrace molecules that embrace atoms (: 21). The process cannot be reversed so that an atom cannot embrace a molecule, and so forth.
Causation within a hierarchy can be further described in relation to Wilber's understanding of
"holons" (1998: 67). Wilber maintains that it is best not to refer to wholes and parts, but rather whole/parts. He uses Arthur Koestler's word holon to denote whole/part and thence uses the term "holoarchy" as a synonym for hierarchy (: 67). Holoarchies demonstrate increasing wholeness, unity and integration. They change by means of integration and differentiation.
Holons exist by maintaining their own identity and fitting in with the holons in their environment. When it is a whole a holon has its own unique agency and as a part it is in communion.
A holon's agency is its capacity to assert, preserve and assimilate (1995: 41). In other words a holon's agency relates to its wholeness or its individuality. A holon's communion is its ability to participate, bond and join. Communion is thus a holon's relationship to its senior unit. A holon requires a balance between agency and communion. Any imbalances between the two occur could result in the death of the holon or a "structural deformity" (: 41).
Holons emerge within holoarchies and in this process are able to transcend and include their lower level (: 46-56). In this manner a holon is beyond the system beneath it and within the one above. In its transcendent mode a holon limits the freedom of the level beneath it. In other words a holon can restrict its lower levels indeterminacy. A lower level holon can also set possibilities for the higher levels. This means that while a higher level holon can generate novelty and thus differentiate itself, it cannot defy the rules set by lower levels. This demonstrates causation in holons.
Wilber maintains that there is a heterarchy within a hierarchy (: 20). Elements within a particular level function according to a heterarchy. This means that the elements that are part of a particular level operate in an egalitarian manner. None of the parts in this society are supreme or dominant. There is thus a network of lateral relationships within levels. Relational exchanges thus occur in regard to same level relationships. The parts in this sense exercise their communion. There is therefore a heterarchy within a level and a hierarchy between levels.
Holons are therefore in egalitarian relationships with other holons on the same level. Wilber writes,
each level of these holons (i.e. every holon) maintains its existence through relational exchanges with same-depth holons in the social (or macro-) environment (1995: 67).
These insights from Wilber provide a necessary description of holistic hierarchy. McFague's body of God cosmology can be adapted with Wilber's views on hierarchy. In this manner the body of God cosmology can maintain its stress on relationship and then introduce the notion of a complexity hierarchy.
The researcher suggests that the concept of holons be applied to the body model. Body then becomes synonymous with holon. This would then articulate how bodies change and how they are diverse. A body thus transcends and includes its lower level bodies. It therefore has the ability to limit its lower-level bodies (i.e. agency) and also be incorporated into its higher-level bodies (i.e. communion). A higher level body is able to add something novel to itself that differentiates it from the bodies, which constitute it. It was noted before that bodies might have subjectivity. The degree of subjectivity will therefore determine the degree of novelty that a body has. A stone body has low subjectivity and thus simply reproduces its stone data. A dolphin body can make decisions about how to catch its prey. A human body can choose to enhance its personal relationships in order to grow as a person or fight poverty to improve the living conditions of other beings.
Moreover, a body at any particular level in a hierarchy limits the bodies below it and
constitutes the bodies above it. As a whole a body is an agent and as a part it is in communion.
This highlights downward and upward causation. This reflection therefore demonstrates how bodies may change in McFague's embodiment metaphysic and how causation could function
in her relational cosmology. In this manner the body of God cosmology can be both holistic and hierarchical.
McFague's concern for relationship is also signified. A body that is at the same level as other bodies is equal to and in a relationship with them. These same level bodies are thus in a heterarchy. McFague concern for relationship is thus interpreted into the notion of heterarchy within hierarchy. The egalitarianism that she stresses may thus be located within a complexity hierarchy.
4.4.3.2 The panpsychism of process philosophy
A modification of McFague's embodiment metaphysic is also possible by using insights from process philosophy in order to lessen or prevent reductionism. She appreciates process perspectives, so it seems reasonable to use views from this particular school of philosophy (:
74).
For Whitehead the universe is composed of events. These events are not static or immutable, but in a process of change. Whitehead denotes these events as "actual entities", "actual
occasions" or "moments of experience" (1978: 18). Actual occasions are the building blocks of reality and are thus indivisible.
Actual entities are dipolar by nature (Cobb 1965: 42). They have a physical pole for
prehending30 other actual entities and a mental pole for prehending eternal objects31. It is with the prehension of eternal objects that novelty is facilitated. The more complex an actual entity the greater its database of eternal objects. A piece of wood for example has far less possibilities for becoming than a human being. It therefore simply reproduces its wood data.
Because every actual entity in the universe has a mental pole process thinkers endorse
"panpsychism" (Ford and Kline 1983: 184). Ford and Kline make the significant observation
Prehension describes the manner through which actual occasions influence one another and how they proceed through change (Massey 1982: 4). At its most basic level, prehension is the absorption of data by an actual occasion.
31 Eternal objects are what J. B Cobb calls, "forms, relations, or qualities in abstraction from any particular embodiment"
(1965: 34). In other words eternal objects are those phenomena that remain constant. They are the possibilities available for becoming. Examples of eternal objects are colours, sounds, scents and geometric shapes (Mellert 1975: 23. Eternal objects are thus similar to Plato's forms.
that mentality must be distinguished from subjectivity and rather be understood as the level of innate novelty in an actual occasion.
These insights from process philosophy are applicable for McFague's embodiment metaphysic.
A body may be understood as an actual entity. The advantage to this is that there are varying degrees of mentality in the bodies that make up the universe. Such an approach also seems to give a description of how bodies are dynamic and relational. Moreover, a process modification of McFague's embodiment metaphysic is able to demonstrate the uniqueness and complexity of the bodies in the universe. Bodies with a high mentality are able to make more decisions vis-a-vis their becoming. Human beings are highly complex beings with a large mental infrastructure. However, they differ from other bodies, because of their ability for self-
consciousness. The value of this modification is that it does not reduce everything to the level of embodiment. Entities are more than their bodies.