CHAPTER II : THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND REVIEW OF
2.2 Definition of Translation
2.2.1 The Approach to Translation
2.2.1.2 Cultural Approach in Translation
This approach is currently undergoing rapid growth. Snell-Hornby (1990) is a character who raised the issue of translation in cultural perspective. This approach makes sense because it is a translation of cultural transaction. Both practitioners and experts acknowledged that cultural translation is a translation of the behavioral aspects that make up itself. Venuti (1995) stated that the translation method applied translator oriented writers or readers much influenced by the culture and ideology.
Language is part of culture that is closely related to the way of thinking, so that a particular cultural community will have its own way of thinking and usually in the present way of thinking through language. Therefore, when one studies a foreign language one will also automatically will learns the related culture. For example an Indonesian world views in contrast to an American world view. The most fundamental relationship of language and culture is that the language should be studied in the context of culture and culture can be learned through language learning.
Different cultures will produce different words because every culture has a different concept. Therefore, translating is not limited to cross-language transfer but also on cross-cultural transfer as well. English only has meaning in cultural background into the container. The existence of cultural differences that inspires language usually causes problems in finding the exact same translation. For those who embrace the cultural approach, research translation using language approach, especially formal language, not able to explain the behavior of the translator. Language cannot be separated from the cultural aspect.
The translation approaches used directly affect the quality of the translation.
There are two theories approaches to translation (see Baker, 1992; Newmark, 1988):bottom-up and top-down. When the translator begins with lingual units smaller
than the text - words, phrases, clauses, and sentences – the translator applies the bottom-up approach. On the other hand, when the translator starts from the highest level, the text, and continues to a lower level, then the translator is applying the top-down approach (see Baker, 1992: 6; Hervey, Higgins, and Haywood, 1995: 1).
Procedures and measures in the top-down approach is illustrated through the triangles
Figure 2.2: Top-down approach translation 2.2.2 Translation Strategies
Translation strategies are part of the translation process, which are applied while the translation process takes place. Lorscher (2005) defines translation strategy as the procedures a translator uses in solving the problems of translation. Therefore, a strategy for translation begins with the realization that there are problems that must be solved during the translation process. A strategy is terminated when those problems are solved or when the translator realizes the problems are unsolvable.
The word strategy is used in a wide context. In translation studies, strategy is a general term with some differences in meaning and perspectives. When referring to Translation, strategy has its own characteristics. Inexperienced translators are sometimes deceived when they translate words or phrases word for word with the use of a dictionary, they fail to understand that the problem remains and changes must be
made at a different level of translation. Many believe that word-for-word translation is irrelevant; instead, solving the problem is the most important functions of a strategy
According to Dr. Miremadi (1991), translation problems can be divided into two categories, lexical and syntactic. A lexical problem occurs, when words are entities that refer to an object or a conception one language but cannot be replaced with a word in another language when referring to the same concept or object. In the analysis of lexical problems, he divided lexical problems into five subcategories: i.e.:
1) Straight/Denotative: This kind of meaning refers to the words of the source text that can be matched with the target text, the words "without missing image" (i.e., mother, father, etc.), 2) Lexical Meaning: refers to the words or phrases that seem equivalent, although in this situation may not occur; translator should be aware of implied intention of the words, 3) Metaphorical Expressions: This subcategory refers to the problematic issues in translating idioms and similar expressions. Broeik (1981), offers the following suggestions for translating idiomatic expressions: a) Distinguishing between regular expressions and metaphors, b) Have access to resources to translate single metaphor, c) Be aware of the different contexts and constraints they use in metaphors, d) Be aware of the constraints on the translation, and the delivery of messages such as Semantic Void: This subcategory includes the words and/or expressions that represent concepts that cannot be found in other specialized communities. Close equivalent can be found, although the exact equivalent concepts cannot. According to Dr. Miremadi (1991), this may happen in two cases: the subject of extra-linguistic factors that have specific references in the speech community but not in the target community, and subject to the intra-linguistic factors such as concepts that may exist in two language communities, but the structure of its use may be completely different, Dagut (1931) argues, Dr. Miremadi (1991)
mentions, that this case occurs when the expression of lexicalization systems differ from one another. Proper Name The final subcategory in this group is the proper name issue. Although the correct name of the individual can be transcribed from one language to another, sometimes they carry a special meaning, which does not exist in the target speech community. (e.g., Jadi Ateta, Karonese name. Jadi means to become and ateta means our heart therefore ―Jadi ateta‖ translation is: “To Become Our Heart” although in real meanging in Karonese it is “Our Love”).
A. Syntactic problem is another major category of problems of translation. Nida (1975) stated thatone can find no two languages that have the exact same system of structural organization.
These differences include: Word Language. Languages differ from each other in the formation of an internal Word Language classification. Grammatical relations These differences exist between the language in a way that is a constituent of the function of a sentence in that sentence. Word order, Style, pragmatic aspects. Given all these problems, the translator is expected to deliver a clear message from the source text to the target text. Although, there is no completely accurate translation between two languages, the ways in which a translator approaches the two language systems, that is, the strategy used by the translator, determines the effectiveness of the translation.
As Chesterman (1997) argues, the general characteristics of translation strategy are as follows: Classification intended: firstly, to read and understand the text; secondly, analyze the differences between source and target text, and only then determine the type of strategy to be used. Finally, write the equivalent text in the target language. Lorscher (1996) identified nine basic elements, which he called, the building blocks translation strategy. They are as follows:
1) Realizing a translational Problem RP
2) Verbalizing a translational Problem VP
3) Searching for a possible solution to a translational Problem SP 4) Solution to a translational Problem SP
5) Preliminary Solution to a translational Problem PSP 6) Parts of a Solution to a translational Problem SPa, SPb…
7) Solution to a translational Problem is still to be found SPø 8) Negative Solution to a translational Problem SP=ø
9) Problem in the reception of the Source Language text PSL
Hatim and Munday (2004) stated that some of the major issues associated with the translation of the form and content strategy involve literal and free translation.
This division can help identify specific problems of translation is too literal destructive comprehensibility. However, the real problem underlying the translation lies in areas such as the type of text and audience.
Chesterman (1997)argued that taxonomy strategy can be presented with a simple translation. In his statement, Chesterman (1997) does not refer to the replacement of the source text with their equivalent in the target text; it means that this replacement cannot be the only task of the translator and it was not enough.
Normal type changes made by the translator can be classified as:
a) the words used in the source text;
b) the structure of these words;
c) the natural context of the source text.
Thus, according to Chesterman (1997), local translation strategies can be categorized into changes in semantics, syntactic, and pragmatic; each group has its own subcategories. Also, there is no clear distinction between them, making it
difficult to say which strategies are appropriate to use. In the following subsections, (1997) Chesterman classification of translation strategies are described as:
B. Syntax Strategy
Local strategiesto change the grammatical structure of the target text in relation to the source text. Chesterman (1997) presents the first syntactic strategy, the literal translation. He believes that this is a strategy of "default".
1) Literal meaning: It means the translator follows the source text as close as possible without having to follow the structure of the source language.
2) Loan translation: This follows the structure of unfamiliar source text for the target text readers.
3) Transposition: Another term Chesterman (1997) borrowed from Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) refers to any change in the class of words, e.g., changing adjectives into to nouns.
4) Shifting Unit: This is a term that has been borrowed from Catford (1965) at the level of morpheme, word, phrase, clause, sentence and paragraph. (Can you explain this better???)
5) Paraphrase changes in structure: This strategy refers to the changes in the internal structure of noun phrases or verb phrases, although the source language sentence itself may be translated by the appropriate phrase in the target language.Clause
6) Structural Change: This is a term that refers to a strategy in which changes affecting the composition of the constituent phrases or clauses. For example, a change from active to passive.
7) Sentence structure changes: This is a term which refers to changes in the structure of the sentence unit. This basically means that a change in the relationship between the main clause and the subordinate.
8) Changes in Cohesion: The way in which parts of the sentence are joined together is called cohesion textual changes. Cohesion is a term that refers to the strategies that affect intra-textual cohesion, and is especially true for pronoun references, ellipsis, substitution or repetition.
9) Level shift: With the term, Chesterman (1997) means phonological, morphological level, syntactic and lexical. This level is presented with a range in a variety of languages. (Can you explain this better?)
10) Amendment Scheme: This refers to the rhetorical schemata such as parallelism, alliteration and rhythm and rhyme in poetry.
C. Semantic Strategy
Chesterman classifies a second group (1997), semantic strategy,that has its own subcategory.
1) Synonyms: In this strategy the translator chooses the closest synonym, which is not a literal translation of the word or phrase.
2) Antonym: In this strategy, the translator uses words with opposite meanings.
The word is mostly combined with negation.
3) Hyponymy: Hyponymy is a relationship between two words in which the meaning of one of the words includes the meaning of the other word.
Examples are: apple- fruit; car- vehicles; tool- furniture; cow - animal.
4) Converses: Converses are pairs of words that refer to a relationship from opposite points of view, such as parent/child or borrow/lend. It is often the
case that the two words are interdependent; in other words, one cannot exist without the other.
5) Change Trope: In a linguistically sense, a trope may be a word, phrase, or image used in a new and different way in order to create an artistic effect.Formal name used for figurative or metaphorical called figurative meaning using the term or phrase to compare two things that are not associated with the express purpose of their similarities. This relates to the type of strategy called figurative change strategy.
6) Abstract Changes: Another type of strategy in the list of changes in refers to replacing a more abstract term with a more concrete idea, or vice versa.
7) Changes in Distribution: This is the kind of strategy where the same semantic components are distributed over more (expansion) or less (compression). (Can you provide examples?)
8) Change Emphasis: This strategy increases, decreases or changes the thematic focus compared to the original subtitles.
9) Strategy Paraphrase: This is the latest strategy in the list. According to the overall meaning of the source text, it is possible to create a liberal estimate translation. In this strategy, some lexical items can be ignored.
D. Pragmatic Strategies
1) Cultural filtering: According to Chesterman (1997 as cited in Bergen nd), the first type of strategy in this group is screening culture. It can be described as a concrete realization, at the level of language, a universal strategy of domestication or target-oriented cultural translation. This strategy is generally used when translating culture-bound items.
2) Changes in firmness: In a change of strategy firmness some information from the source text may be added; or removed to make the text
3) Change of Information: The next type of information change strategy similar to the previous strategy; here, however, changed information is NOT implicit in the source language text.
4) Changes in Interpersonal: This strategy is used to affect the entire style of the text to make it more or less information, technical etc.
5) Speech acts: There is another strategy change in the nature of the source text of the speech act, either required or not required (eg reporting to the command, or from direct to indirect speech).
6) Change Visibility: This is a strategy that increases the "presence" of boththe source text writer or translator (eg footnote added by the translator).
7) Coherence Change: Another strategy is similar to the change coherence cohesion changes mentioned in the previous section (strategy syntax). The only difference is that, the problem of changes in the micro-structure level cohesion (eg, sentences or paragraphs), but changes in textual coherence involves a higher level (ie combining paragraphs are different from each other in a way that is different from the source text).
8) Partial translation: This is a strategy that refers to translate part of the text, not the whole text (eg, song or poem).
9) Trans-editing: As Bergen also stated, according Stetting (1989), another strategy that may be mentioned in this section are trans-editing refers to the extensive editing of the original text when necessary (ie changing the organization of resources text, word -said or etc.)
The strategy presents a classification above Chesterman (1997), quoted by Bergen (nd). It is clear that all strategies can be in certain cases "to change something,‖
This strategy level translation work different from each other; and as Bergen (nd) stated can cause terminological confusion among researchers who are concerned with the study of translation.
As Venuti (2001) states, from Vinay and Darbelnet's (1958) viewpoint, the translator can choose to translate the two main methods are called: direct translation/literal and oblique translation.When literal translation is not possible because ofdifferences in the lexical and syntactic between the two languages, translation sloping used.
Oblique translation includes seven sub-categories are as follows:
1. Loan: is used to overcome the meta-linguistic differences. This is the simplest strategy of translation that means using a source language term in the target text.
2. Calque: This is a special type of loan expression literally translated into the target language.
3. Literal translation: it means the rendering of the source language text into the equivalent idiomatic or appropriate grammar in the target language.
4. Transposition: replacing one word with another class without changing the meaning of the message.
5. Modulation:the change in angle of view (eg changing part of speech).
6. Equality: This refers to a method of rendering two situations with different styles and structures; The two texts including the source text and the text equivalent of a target text.
7. Adaptation: which refers to the situation when cultural differences occur between the source language and the target language. Thus, the translation can be considered as a special kind of equality that equality situational.
The strategy above is in accordance with the classification of Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), which shows some similarities with the Chesterman classification; However, as we can see above (1997) classification is obviously more detailed Chesterman. All the strategies mentioned above is a theory that is named differently by different theorists.
There will be a clear boundary between them. In addition, they are just a few strategies that can be used by translators, and it seems that there are different options that a translator possible when doing translations. However, there is no hierarchical order strategy more or less frequently used. Baker (1992) offers eight taxonomy of translation strategies, which are used by professional translators.
E. Baker taxonomy: Mona Baker (1992) lists eight strategies that have been used by the translator, to address problematic issues while performing the task of translation:
1) Translation by more general words
2) It is one of the most common strategies to deal with various types of nonequivalence. As Baker believes, it works right in most, if not all, languages, because in the field of semantics, the meaning does not depend on language.
3) Translation by more neutral/less expressive word 4) This is another strategy in the field of semantic structure.
5) Translation by cultural substitution
This strategy involves replacing certain cultural items or expressions with the target language items to consider its impact on the target reader. This strategy makes the translated text more natural, more understandable and more familiar to readers of the target.The decision to use by the translator of this strategy will depend on: 1) The extent to which the translator is given a license by the people who commission translations and 2) The purpose of the translation
a) The translation uses the word loan or loan word plus explanation
This strategy can be used in dealing with specific cultural goods, modern concepts and buzz words. Using the loan with this explanation is very useful when the word is repeated several times in the text. At the first time the word is mentioned by explanation and the next time the word could
b) Translation by paraphrase using related words
This strategy is used when the source item in lexicalized in the target language, but in a different form, and when the frequency of certain forms used in the source text is clearly higher than it would be natural in the target language.
c) Translation by paraphrase using words that are not related
Paraphrasing strategies can be used when the concept of the source item is not lexicalized in the target language. When the meaning of a complex source item in the target language, a paraphrasing strategies can be used instead of using words that are related; may be based on modifying the super-ordinate or simply to make clear the meaning of the source element.
d) Translation by omission
It some kind of drastic strategy, but in fact may even be useful to eliminate translate words or phrases in some contexts. If the meaning is conveyed by a particular item or expression does not need anymore in understanding the translation, the translator uses this strategy to avoid lengthy explanation.
e) Translation by illustration
This strategy can be useful when the target of similar goods not include some aspects of the source item and similar items refer to a physical entity that can be described, mainly to avoid over-explanation and should be concise and to the point. It is obvious, each theory offers/its own strategy according to his/her perspective;
However, (1992) taxonomy Baker translation strategy including the applicable set of
However, (1992) taxonomy Baker translation strategy including the applicable set of