CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION
1.6 Description of Terms
The terms used in this dissertation are terms commonly used in the field of translation studies. The use of these terms needs to be clarified to avoid
misunderstandings. There are also terms used in the field of translation which are not consistent. The terms in question are as follows:
1) Source Language and Target Language
Source Language is the language from which a text is to be translated into another language; while the Target Language is a language into which a text has to be translated. If someone translates a text from Indonesian into French then Indonesian is the source language and French is the target language.
2) Translation Techniques
The categories used to analyze translations allow us to study the way translation works. These categories are related to text, context and process.
Textual categories describe mechanisms of coherence, cohesion and thematic progression. Contextual categories introduce all the extra-textual elements related to the context of source text and translation production. Process categories are designed to answer two basic questions. Which option has the translator chosen to carry out the translation project, i.e., which method was chosen? How has the translator solved the problems that have emerged during the translation process, i.e., which were chosen? However, research requirements may make it important to consider textual micro-units as well. Molina & Albir (2002).
3) Translation Methods
Newmark (1988) mentions the difference between translation methods and translation procedures. He writes that, ―while translation methods relate to whole texts translation procedures are used for sentences and the smaller units of language. He continuous to refer to the following methods of translation:
a. Word-for-word translation: in which the SL word order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context.
b. Literal translation: in which the SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents, but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context.
c. Faithful translation: it attempts to produce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures.
d. Semantic translation: which differs from 'faithful translation' only in as far as it must take more account of the artistic value of the Source Language text.
e. Adaptation: which is the freest form of translation, and is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture is converted to the TL culture and the text is rewritten.
f. Free translation: it produces the TL text without the style, form, or content of the original.
g. Idiomatic translation: it reproduces the 'message' of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original.
h. Communicative translation: it attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.
Newmark (1991) writes of a continuum existing between "semantic" and
"communicative" translation. Any translation can be "more, or less semantic—
more, or less, communicative—even a particular section or sentence can be treated more communicatively or less semantically." Both seek an "equivalent effect."
1.7 Data Source Translated Into Indonesian as TT1 and into English as TT2 Since the time of Indonesia's independence,Karo cultural traditions have eroded considerably because of the government's insistence to teach and use the national language at schools. This, coupled with the current era of globalization, has caused many parents in urban and rural areas to diminish the importance of local languages.
For many Indonesian families, it is most to learn English. Parents do not realize that if today's youth do not have a strong mother tongue, they will not be able to learn a second language or third language as well. One of the goals of this research is to preserve local knowledge andKaro oral traditions, specifically in regard to treatment of bone fractures.
Why are all three languages, Karonese as the source text, Bahasa Indonesian as the first target text, and English as a second target text, important in this study?
Karo language as the source language is no longer respected by the younger Karo generation who do not speak it anymore. Therefore, to to enable them to understand the text, they have to read it in Indonesian. Similarly, if target text I (TT1) is written in Indonesian, young people from various ethnic groups in Indonesia will be able to understand the text. As English is an international language, the international community will be able to fully understand what is written in the study. Therefore, all three languages are used to maximize the capacity of this study to the Karo people, the people of Indonesia and the international community, particularly the World Health Organization (WHO).
According to some philosophers, language is a tradition. Kaelan (1998) Treatment of bone fractures is Karonese Local Wisdom in the form of oral tradition and has been in practice for hundreds of years. However, these treatments may
gradually become extinct if young people no longer speak or understand Karonese or consider traditional Karonese medication as an option. As one of the objectives of this study is to describe and analyze "The Translation of Traditional Medical Karo in Fractured Bones Text Settings", the writer encourages the younger generation in Indonesia, especially Karo, to be proud of their cultural identity while simultaneously gain skills to communicate with the international community in order to cooperate, collaborate and compete in a globalized world.
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
A professional translator is required to have linguistic mastery of both the Source Language and Target Language. It is not just being able to speak both languages, but s/he should be able to detect the differences and similarities between the two linguistic features of the language.Hatim and Munday (2009) wrote that Translation is a multi-disciplinary discipline and that Translation requires the contribution of various sub-disciplines of linguistics such as semantics, sociolinguistics, pragmatics, analysis discourse, contrastive linguistics, cognitive linguistics, and other disciplines such as philosophy, language engineering, cultural studies and literature.
Thus, translation should not be based only on one theory; rather, it should be based on a number of theories (eclectic) that are mutually related and supportive of each other. This type of translation corresponds to ‗interlingual translation‘ and is one of the three categories of translation described by the Russo-American structuralist Roman Jakobson in his seminal paper ‗On Linguistic Aspects of Translation‘
Jakobson in Hatim and Munday (2009).
Figure 2.1: Map of disciplines interfacing with Translation Studies (Hatim and Munday 2009:8)
Jakobson‘s categories are:(1) intralingual translation, or ‗rewording‘: ‗an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language‘;(2) interlingual translation, or ‗proper translation‘: ‗an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language‘: (3) inter-semiotic translation, or ‗transmutation‘: ‗an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of non-verbal sign systems‘.
Intralingual translation occurs, for example, when we rephrase an expression or when we summarize or otherwise rewrite a text in the same language. Intersemiotic translation occurs if a written text is translated, for example, into music, film or painting. It is interlingual translationbetween two different verbal languages, which is the traditional, although by no means exclusive, focus of translation studies.
Translation has several meanings. It can be referred to as a general subject field: a product or a text that has been translated or the process of the act of producing the translation. Translation is associated with cognitive processes that occur in the brain while the translator translates. This is a process that cannot be observed with the naked eye. The translating process can be seen in the behavior of the translator, when the translator opens a dictionary and reads it, and so on., The process of translation between two different languages involves the translator changing an original or the source text (ST) into written text or target language text (TT1).
2.2 Definition of Translation
According to Nida (1964), translating means generating a message that is the closest andmost appropriate expressions from a source language to the target language. Translation can consist of words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs and text that are called "forms" (form or surface structure)Nida and Taber (1969). Meanwhile, Beekman and Callow (1974) said that the translation is to convey a message from one language into another language. Newmark (1981) states that: ―translation is the transfer of a written message from source language text into the target language text‖;
Larson (1984) sees translation as the transfer of messages from the source language text into the target language text using grammatical and lexical forms of the appropriate target language. De Groot (1997) defines translation as an activity redefining source language text into the target language text.
The accuracy of translation can be achieved through the translator's mastering of the source language (SL) and the target language (TL).This involves the mastery of grammar and vocabulary as well as the culture of both the source language and the target language. An effective translation must show that the translator has sufficient knowledge of the material translated, including the socio-cultural context of both the
source and the target languages. Regardless of differences in the definition of the term "translation", the experts agreed on the basic principles of translation that isunderstanding the process of translation as described above. The process of translation refers to a linguistic operation carried out by the translator in an attempt to divert the source language text message into the target language, and translated into three stages, i.e., 1) the source language text analysis phase, in order to understand the message, 2)the stage transfer of messages, and 3) the stage of restructuring,Nida(1964).
2.2.1 The Approach to Translation
After Holmes (1972/2000) declared translation studies an independent scientific field, translation became the object of extensive research. This is easily understood because translation is most oftenthe highlighted aspects of the target readers and it is real that the data is easily accessible in an effort to uncover the phenomenon of translation. Fairclough (1995), Perez Calzada (2007) assert that translation research is identical to factors which are developing out of the center as well as factors which are growing towards the center, causing the emergence of contradictions such as translation studies of literal versus non-literal, and product versus process. The last two of the most interesting contradictions are the linguistic approach versus the cultural aproach.
2.2.1.1 Linguistic Approach
At first, translation was regarded as an operating language alone. It can be seen with the work of a language approach that was used to assess the translation,
Vinay and Darbelnet 1958 in Catford (1965). These works were widely discussed by experts as a work that tries to uncover the activities of translation using linguistic approach, Munday (2001), Molina and Hurtado Albir (2002). Vinay and Darbelnet reviewed the translation by performing a comparative analysis between English and French. They observed the text body of the source and target language to reveal differences and similarities between the two languages. Darbelnet identified two general strategies: Direct translation and Oblique translation. Derived from both of these strategies are seven translation procedures. Three fell under the category of Direct translation strategy: borrowing, calque and literal translation. The remaining four procedures fell under the category of Oblique translation:, they are transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation, Hatim and Munday (2004).
In assessing both strategies, it can be concluded that both of the strategies fall on the classic contradiction they are the literal translation method versus the free translation method (Direct translation vs. Oblique translation). Although Vinay and Darbelnet did not mention the term shift in their work, it is clear to us that the strategies and procedures they found led us to the talks of the translation shifts by the translator because of the differences in language and culture in order to get good translation results. The text equivalence is a situation where a translation is considered equivalent with the source text. Due to this classification, when a dispute between formal correspondence and the equivalence of the text, it can be concluded that shifts occurred.Shifts may include level and category. With direct quote from Catford (2000: 141), ‖Translation shifts are thus departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the Source Language to the Target Language‖.
2.2.1.2 Cultural Approach in Translation
This approach is currently undergoing rapid growth. Snell-Hornby (1990) is a character who raised the issue of translation in cultural perspective. This approach makes sense because it is a translation of cultural transaction. Both practitioners and experts acknowledged that cultural translation is a translation of the behavioral aspects that make up itself. Venuti (1995) stated that the translation method applied translator oriented writers or readers much influenced by the culture and ideology.
Language is part of culture that is closely related to the way of thinking, so that a particular cultural community will have its own way of thinking and usually in the present way of thinking through language. Therefore, when one studies a foreign language one will also automatically will learns the related culture. For example an Indonesian world views in contrast to an American world view. The most fundamental relationship of language and culture is that the language should be studied in the context of culture and culture can be learned through language learning.
Different cultures will produce different words because every culture has a different concept. Therefore, translating is not limited to cross-language transfer but also on cross-cultural transfer as well. English only has meaning in cultural background into the container. The existence of cultural differences that inspires language usually causes problems in finding the exact same translation. For those who embrace the cultural approach, research translation using language approach, especially formal language, not able to explain the behavior of the translator. Language cannot be separated from the cultural aspect.
The translation approaches used directly affect the quality of the translation.
There are two theories approaches to translation (see Baker, 1992; Newmark, 1988):bottom-up and top-down. When the translator begins with lingual units smaller
than the text - words, phrases, clauses, and sentences – the translator applies the bottom-up approach. On the other hand, when the translator starts from the highest level, the text, and continues to a lower level, then the translator is applying the top-down approach (see Baker, 1992: 6; Hervey, Higgins, and Haywood, 1995: 1).
Procedures and measures in the top-down approach is illustrated through the triangles
Figure 2.2: Top-down approach translation 2.2.2 Translation Strategies
Translation strategies are part of the translation process, which are applied while the translation process takes place. Lorscher (2005) defines translation strategy as the procedures a translator uses in solving the problems of translation. Therefore, a strategy for translation begins with the realization that there are problems that must be solved during the translation process. A strategy is terminated when those problems are solved or when the translator realizes the problems are unsolvable.
The word strategy is used in a wide context. In translation studies, strategy is a general term with some differences in meaning and perspectives. When referring to Translation, strategy has its own characteristics. Inexperienced translators are sometimes deceived when they translate words or phrases word for word with the use of a dictionary, they fail to understand that the problem remains and changes must be
made at a different level of translation. Many believe that word-for-word translation is irrelevant; instead, solving the problem is the most important functions of a strategy
According to Dr. Miremadi (1991), translation problems can be divided into two categories, lexical and syntactic. A lexical problem occurs, when words are entities that refer to an object or a conception one language but cannot be replaced with a word in another language when referring to the same concept or object. In the analysis of lexical problems, he divided lexical problems into five subcategories: i.e.:
1) Straight/Denotative: This kind of meaning refers to the words of the source text that can be matched with the target text, the words "without missing image" (i.e., mother, father, etc.), 2) Lexical Meaning: refers to the words or phrases that seem equivalent, although in this situation may not occur; translator should be aware of implied intention of the words, 3) Metaphorical Expressions: This subcategory refers to the problematic issues in translating idioms and similar expressions. Broeik (1981), offers the following suggestions for translating idiomatic expressions: a) Distinguishing between regular expressions and metaphors, b) Have access to resources to translate single metaphor, c) Be aware of the different contexts and constraints they use in metaphors, d) Be aware of the constraints on the translation, and the delivery of messages such as Semantic Void: This subcategory includes the words and/or expressions that represent concepts that cannot be found in other specialized communities. Close equivalent can be found, although the exact equivalent concepts cannot. According to Dr. Miremadi (1991), this may happen in two cases: the subject of extra-linguistic factors that have specific references in the speech community but not in the target community, and subject to the intra-linguistic factors such as concepts that may exist in two language communities, but the structure of its use may be completely different, Dagut (1931) argues, Dr. Miremadi (1991)
mentions, that this case occurs when the expression of lexicalization systems differ from one another. Proper Name The final subcategory in this group is the proper name issue. Although the correct name of the individual can be transcribed from one language to another, sometimes they carry a special meaning, which does not exist in the target speech community. (e.g., Jadi Ateta, Karonese name. Jadi means to become and ateta means our heart therefore ―Jadi ateta‖ translation is: “To Become Our Heart” although in real meanging in Karonese it is “Our Love”).
A. Syntactic problem is another major category of problems of translation. Nida (1975) stated thatone can find no two languages that have the exact same system of structural organization.
These differences include: Word Language. Languages differ from each other in the formation of an internal Word Language classification. Grammatical relations These differences exist between the language in a way that is a constituent of the function of a sentence in that sentence. Word order, Style, pragmatic aspects. Given all these problems, the translator is expected to deliver a clear message from the source text to the target text. Although, there is no completely accurate translation between two languages, the ways in which a translator approaches the two language systems, that is, the strategy used by the translator, determines the effectiveness of the translation.
As Chesterman (1997) argues, the general characteristics of translation strategy are as follows: Classification intended: firstly, to read and understand the text; secondly, analyze the differences between source and target text, and only then determine the type of strategy to be used. Finally, write the equivalent text in the target language. Lorscher (1996) identified nine basic elements, which he called, the building blocks translation strategy. They are as follows:
As Chesterman (1997) argues, the general characteristics of translation strategy are as follows: Classification intended: firstly, to read and understand the text; secondly, analyze the differences between source and target text, and only then determine the type of strategy to be used. Finally, write the equivalent text in the target language. Lorscher (1996) identified nine basic elements, which he called, the building blocks translation strategy. They are as follows: