Knowledge of teaching • Content plus content
3. Proses Pembelajaran dan Hasil Belajar a. Konsep Pembelajaran
Peningkatan mutu pendidikan akan tercapai apabila proses belajar mengajar yang diselenggarakan di kelas benar-benar efektif dan berguna untuk mencapai kemampuan pengetahuan, sikap dan ketrampilan yang diharapkan. Karena pada dasarnya proses belajar mengajar merupakan inti dari proses pendidikan secara keseluruhan, di antaranya guru merupakan salah satu faktor yang penting dalam menentukan berhasilnya proses belajar mengajar di dalam kelas.
Ormrod (2003:188) learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior
due to experience.
Adapun Good (2008:171) mendefinisikan
Learning is a long-lasting change in the learner’s knowledge as a result of the learner’s experience. This definition has three components:
1) Learning is long lasting, so fleeting changes such as mood changes do not count as learning.
2) Learning is a change in knowledge, so changes in knowledge must be inferred from changes in behavior.
3) Learning is a result of experience, so changes due to fatigue, injury, or drugs do not count as learning.
Crow & crow (Surya, 1978:32) menyatakan bahwa
Learning takes place whenever an individual finds himself in a situation to which he cannot adjust through the untilization of custemery modes of respons or whenever abstacties that interface with desired activities. The process of adjusting to or of over coming abtract may take place more or less unconsciously, without thinking much about what is doing, the learning tries out one or another already formed habit or behaviour until he it upon a staticfactory response.
Sementara itu Hoy & Miskel (2001: 41) menyatakan bahwa
Learning happens when experience produces a stable change in someone’s knowledge or behavior. The change may be intentional or not;
but to qualify as learning the chane must be occur because of experience as the individual interacts with his or her environment. Changes simply due
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to maturation such as growing taller or getting bald are not instances of learning. Similarly, temporary changes due to illness, fatigue, or short-lived
physical deprivations are not part of learning, but of course, people do learn how to cope with such problems.
Säljö (1979) dalam Brownlee, et al (2003:1) mengidentifikasi lima konsep tentang pembelajaran, yaitu
(a) an increase in knowledge, (b) memorising, (c) the acquisition of knowledge for retention or use in practice, (d) understanding, and (e) an
interpretative process aimed at the understanding of reality.
Proses pembelajaran adalah proses yang di dalamnya terdapat kegiatan interaksi antara guru-siswa dan komunikasi timbal balik yang berlangsung dalam situasi edukatif untuk mencapai tujuan belajar (Rustaman, 2001). Pembelajaran lebih menekankan pada optimalisasi kegiatan belajar itu sendiri. Hal ini akan berkaitan dengan efisiensi, efektivitas, dan produktivitas antara lain (Sudjana,1995:57).
1) Efisiensi dan efektivitas dalam pencapaian tujuan intruksional. 2) Efektivitas dan relevasi bahan pengajaran.
3) Produktivitas kegiatan belajar mengajar. 4) Efektifitas sumber dan sarana pengajaran.
5) Efektifitas penelitian hasil dan proses belajar mengajar. Hasil belajar memiliki ketergantungan terhadap kualitas pembelajaran yang dilaksanakan.
Berdasarkan pendapat para ahli di atas, dapat disimpulkan bahwa pembelajaran merupakan suatu aktifitas mental atau psikis yang berkesinambungan yang berlangsung selama interaksi aktif dengan lingkungan yang menghasilkan perubahan-perubahan dalam pengetahuan, pemahaman, keterampilan dan nilai-nilai sikap.
Agar memperoleh hasil yang memuaskan dalam proses belajar mengajar, peserta didik dan pendidik dalam proses belajar mengajar perlu memperhatikan hal-hal sebagai berikut (Anonim, 2011) :
1) Menciptakan suasana proses belajar mengajar yang menyenangkan dan merangsang aktivitas proses belajar mengajar.
2) Mengoptimalkan hasil belajar, melalui proses belajar mengajar yang berdaya guna dan berhasil guna
3) Mengerjakan tugas dengan baik
4) Merumuskan tujuan belajar mengajr dengan baik
5) Melihat kembali hasil-hasil belajar mengajar yang telah dicapai
6) Mencari jalan keluar agar dalam proses belajar mengajar lebih aktif dan kreatif
Eggen & Kauchak (1998) dalam Krisnawan (2009:1) Menjelaskan bahwa ada enam ciri efektivitas pembelajaran, yaitu:
1) siswa menjadi pengkaji yang aktif terhadap lingkungannya melalui mengobservasi, membandingkan, menemukan kesamaan-kesamaan dan perbedaan-perbedaan serta membentuk konsep dan generalisasi berdasarkan kesamaan-kesamaan yang ditemukan,
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3) aktivitas-aktivitas siswa sepenuhnya didasarkan pada pengkajian,
4) guru secara aktif terlibat dalam pemberian arahan dan tuntunan kepada siswa dalam menganalisis informasi,
5) orientasi pembelajaran penguasaan isi pelajaran dan pengembangan keterampilan berpikir, serta
6) guru menggunakan teknik mengajar yang bervariasi sesuai dengan tujuan dan gaya mengajar guru.
Adapun menurut Marsh (2006, 144-286) Menjelaskan bahwa ada delapan ciri pembelajaran yang efektif, yaitu: (1) komunikasi yang efektif, (2) cara-cara mengajar, (3) manajemen kelas, (4) menggunakan sumber daya secara kreatif, (5) memberi fasilitas bagi perbedaan individu dan pembelajaran, (6) mengajar, nilai-nilai, dan pendidikan moral, (7) bekerjasama secara efektif dengan orangtua, serta (8) penilaian dan pelaporan.
b. Hasil Belajar
Hasil belajar (learning outcomes) merupakan spesifikasi dari apa yang siswa pelajari dari masa studi. The GDC (Harden, 1999:7-14) mengidentifikasi
learning outcomes that define the product of undergraduate education, which they define as 'a caring, knowledgeable, competent and skilful dentist who is able, on graduation, to accept professional responsibility for the effective and safe care of patients, who appreciates the need for continuing professional development, who is able to utilise advances in relevant knowledge and techniques and who understands the role of the patients in decision making'.
SedangkanAdam (2004) berpendapat bahwa,
Learning outcomes are concerned with the achievements of the learner rather than the intentions of the teacher (expressed in the aims of a module or course). They can take many forms and can be broad or narrow in nature. Lanjutnya, a learning outcome is a written statement of what the successful student/learner is expected to be able to do at the end of the module/course unit, or qualification. Learning outcomes and ‘aims and objectives’ are often used synonymously,
although they are not the same. Adam (2004) notes that ‘Aims are concerned
with teaching and the teacher’s intentions whilst learning outcomes are concerned with learning’ and Moon (2002) suggests that one way to distinguish aims from learning outcomes is that aims indicate the general content, direction and intentions behind the module from the designer/teacher viewpoint.
The Credit Common Accord for Wales mendefinisikan learning outcomes
sebagai Statements of what a learner can be expected to know, understand and/or do as a result of a learning experience. (QCA /LSC, 2004:12)
University of Warwick (2004) mengemukakan bahwa
learning outcomes adalah The skills and knowledge a student will possess upon successful completion of a course. Learning outcomes as set out in Warwick course specifications are divided into four categories:
1) Subject knowledge and understanding;
2) Subject-specific skills are practical skills, practice of which is integral to the course, e.g. laboratory skills, language skills, counselling skills;
3) Cognitive skills, intellectual skills such as an understanding of methodologies, synthesis, evaluation or ability in critical analysis;
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4) Key skills are skills that are readily transferable to employment in other contexts, such as written and oral communication, working within a team, problem solving, numeracy and IT skills.
Sedangkan University of Exeter (2004) mendefinisikan bahwa
Learning Outcome: An expression of what a student will demonstrate on the successful completion of a module. Learning outcomes:
1) are related to the level of the learning;
2) indicate the intended gain in knowledge and skills that a typical student will
achieve;
3) should be capable of being assessed.
UMIST (2001) mendefinisikan “learning outcome sebagai Learning Outcome: the
acquisition of the knowledge, skill or understanding that is the desired outcome of a learning process”.
The ECTS (EU, 2004) memandang bahwa “Learning outcomes are statements of
what a learner is expected to know, understand and/or be able to demonstrate after a completion of a process of learning”.
A Canadian mengemukakan bahwa
Learning outcome statements are content standards for the provincial education system. Learning outcomes are statements of what students are expected to know and to do at an indicated grade, they comprise the prescribed curriculum. (BC, 2004)
CHEA (2003: 5) mengemukakan bahwa
Student learning outcomes are properly defined in terms of the knowledge, skills, and abilities that a student has attained at the end (or as a result) of his or her engagement in a particular set of higher education experiences. Not all of the outcomes of college are confined to learning. Additional behavioral outcomes or experiences that may result from attending an institution or program include employment and increased career mobility, enhanced incomes and lifestyles, the opportunity to enroll for additional education, or simply a more fulfilled and reflective life. Hopefully, these are related to learning. Indeed, evidence that students have obtained such benefits is often used by institutions and programs as a proxy for instructional effectiveness. But such subsequent experiences, however successful, should not be confused with actual mastery of what has been taught. Similarly, student and graduate satisfaction is important, especially as it is related to persistence and the continuing opportunity to learn. But it should not be confused with student learning itself.
Sementara itu AALL (2004) mendefinisikan bahwa
Learning outcomes are statements that specify what learners will know or be able to do as a result of a learning activity. Outcomes are usually expressed as knowledge, skills, or attitudes. Learning outcomes should flow from a needs assessment. The needs assessment should determine the gap between an existing condition and a desired condition. Learning outcomes are statements that describe a desired condition—that is, the knowledge, skills, or attitudes required to fulfill the need. They represent the solution to the identified need or issue. Learning outcomes provide direction in the planning of a learning activity.
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Adapun UNESCO mengidentifikasikan outcomes and student learning outcomes yaitu :
• Outcomes: Anticipated or achieved results of programmes or the
accomplishment of institutional objectives, as demonstrated by a wide range of indicators (such as student knowledge, cognitive skills, and attitudes). Outcomes are direct results of the instructional programme, planned in terms of student/learner growth in all areas. An outcome must be distinguished
from an objective, which is a sought-after result. Generally, each outcome
statement should describe one effect of the instructional programme, and not accumulate several into one statement. Also, the statements should be clearly detailed and easily understandable by all teaching staff and students in the given area or department.
• Student Learning Outcomes: Statements of what a learner is expected to
know, understand, and/or be able to demonstrate after completion of a process of learning as well as the specific intellectual and practical skills gained and demonstrated by the successful completion of a unit, course, or programme. Learning outcomes, together with assessment criteria, specify
the minimum requirements for the award of credit, while grading is based on
attainment above or below the minimum requirements for the award of credit. Learning outcomes are distinct from the aims of learning in that they are concerned with the achievements of the learner rather than with the overall intentions of the teacher. (Vlãsceanu et al., 2004, pp. 41–42)
Lebih lanjut Adam (2004) mengemukakan bahwa
The creation of learning outcomes is not a precise science and they require considerable thought to write – it is easy to get them wrong and create a learning strait jacket. Learning outcomes are commonly further divided into different categories of outcomes. The most common sub-divisions are between: subject specific outcomes that relate to the subject discipline and the knowledge and/or skills particular to it; and generic (sometimes called key transferable skills) outcomes that relate to any and all disciplines e.g. written, oral, problem-solving, information technology, and team working skills, etc. The identification of generic skills is seen as important in enhancing the employability of graduates whatever their discipline.
Menurut Sudjana (1995:16),
hasil belajar adalah proses penentuan tingkat kecakapan penguasaan belajar seseorang dengan cara membandingkannya dengan norma tertentu dalam sistem penilaian yang disepak ati. Hasil belajar dapat diwujudk an dengan adanya perubahan tingkah laku seseorang dalam ranah kognitif, afektif dan psikomotorik yang ditetapkan sebagai tujuan pernbelajaran.
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Senada dengan SK. Mendiknas No. 045/U/2002 bahwa hasil belajar siswa adalah penguasaan kompetensi. Dalam hal ini kompetensi diartikan sebagai (1) Seperangkat tindakan cerdas penuh tanggung jawab yang dimiliki seseorang sebagai syarat untuk dianggap mampu oleh masyarakat dalam melaksanakan tugas-tugas di bidang pekerjaan tertentu; (2) Kemampuan yang dapat dilakukan oleh peserta didik yang mencakup pengetahuan, keterampilan dan perilaku; (3) Integrasi domain kognitif, afektif dan psikomotorik yang direfleksikan dalam perilaku.
Dalam hal ini, Moh Surya (1997) mengemukakan ciri-ciri dari perubahan perilaku, yaitu :
