CHAPTER II
REVIEW OFLITERATURE
2.1. Definitionof Linguistics
Creativityof manisreflectedthroughlanguage. Itisman’snatureto
create,innovateinordertosimplifyhislifeandshowhisexistence.Now,itis
moreobviousthateveryequipment,probleminhumanlifewouldneverbesolved
orinventediflanguagewereneverexistedinthiscycleoflife.Realizing how
importantthefunctionoflanguageforsociallife,many expertshavedone
experimentstoknowwhatelementsare involvedintheprocessofmaking a
languagewheretwoormorepeople can understandeachother.Asithasbeen
knownthatlinguisticsisastudyaboutlanguage.Tohaveagoodunderstanding
aboutinguistics,therearesomedefinitionsofitandthewriter wouldliketoquote
it.deSaussure(1986:9)defines that:“Linguistics is thescientificstudyof
language.”Meanwhile,theotherstatesthat: “Linguisticsisthestudyofthese knowledge
systems in all their aspects: how is such a knowledge system structured, how it
isacquired, how it isused in theproduction and comprehension ofmessages,how
itchanges over time.”(http://linguistics.ucsc.edu). These definitionsshedlighton
thisanalysiswherelinguisticsgivesinformation indetail all things
aboutlanguage.Linguisticsis about aspectswhichsupport language formation and
what mechanism they use to bear meaningfulutteranceor
expressionsothattheycanfulfilltheirwillsincethisisthebasicreasonthey sharewhat
Thereisprocessthatmustbeundergonesothatitcanbecatogorizedas language.
All thosephasesare summarized in linguisticsand the writer will
explainitbyinsertingthe main stepsof languageformation.
2.2. Subfieldsof Linguistics
Languageisacombinationofsmallestelementfoundinitandeachof
themhasasignificantrole todeterminea meaning thatuser wantsstating.Every
elementorlexicaliteminlanguageisexplicatedparticularinlinguistics.The writer
would like to put iton thispoint inorder to guide thisanalysisinto theright
destination.BasedonKreidler(1998:18)therearesix phasestaken tocategorizeit as
alanguage. Thesearesixsubfields of linguistics thathaveessentialprocess of
languageformation:
-Phonetics:Thestudyandclassificationofthenatureofspeechsounds,
primarilyits structure, articulation andperception. Phoneticshasthree
mainsubfields: articulatory phonetics(correlationbetweenspeechorgans
andtheproductionof speech),acousticphonetics(propertiesof human speech
sound waves), and auditoryphonetics(speech perception).
Voicing:[s]versus[z]
•sue([su:w])versuszoo ([zu:w])
-Phonology:Theanalysis anddescriptionofhow meaningfulsounds
combineinto functionalpatternsin speechproduction of alanguage.
• house(verb) ([hawz])
• houses(plur. noun) ([hawz@z])
-Morphology:Thestudyofthestructureofindividualwordsandofthe smallest
meaningfulunitsalong withtheirpossiblecombinationstoform lexicalitems.
• missile:‘ICBM’
• anti-tank-missile:‘missile targettingtanks’
• anti-aircraft-missle:‘missile targettingaircraft’
• anti-missile-missile:‘missile targettingICBMs’
-Syntax:Thestudy ofthegrammaticalrelationsbetweenwords,howthey
combineintolargerunitsandtherules thatmustbeobeyedtoform sentences.
Tobedistinguishedfrom morphology,whichappliestounits smallerthan
theword.
• Isawthewoman with the telescope.
• Iforgothowgood beer tastes.
-Semantics:Thestudy ofthemeaningof(partsof)words,phrases, sentences
and textswiththeaimto explainhowsequencesof language coincidewith their
meanings when articulated in particular environments.
• Wescreened the candidates.
• [huwzan f@rst]
Who’son first?/Hu’son first.
-Pragmatics:Thestudyofthewaysinwhichasituationinfluencesthe meaning
andunderstanding ofspokenlanguageornon-verbal communication.
Q:IsRobertsaRepublican?
A:IsthePopeCatholic?
Whatcanbelearnedfromthis quotationis this is phaseorstepsomeoneis going
toundergowhenheorshewantstostarttocommunicatewithotherpeople
orontheotherword, itcanbesaidthat learner willneverbeable toperceivea
sentenceorutteranceifheskipsoneofthephases.Thisisthereasonthewriter
putsthequotations.Fromtheelaboration above,it can bedrawna conclusion that
syntaxisclosely relatedtothisanalysisbecausethissubfieldconcentrateson
combination of wordsto produceameaningfulsentence and structure.
2.3. Syntax
Ingeneral,therearetwokindsoflanguage,namely:spokenandwritten
language.Spokenlanguagehappenswhentwoormorepeoplewould like toshare
anythingtheywanttoshareinwhichtheydoitfacetofacemeanwhilewritten languageis
amethodused to communicateorgivean information toothers where
mediumisneeded,whichistext.Themostimportantthing incommunicating is
careofwording andstructure.Fieldstudiesaboutitis syntax.“Syntaxisthesetof rules,
principles, and processes that govern the structure ofsentencesin a given
language”(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax
). In delivering a sentence
andutterance,therearerulesorregulationseveryonemustbeconductedsothat
theaimofcommunicationwillbe acquired.Speaking ofregulationinlanguage,
especiallyEnglishlanguage,ithasbeenformulatedandusedasaguidanceto
makesentence. Regulationin language isgrammar.
2.4. Grammar
Grammarispartofsyntaxfieldthatelucidateseverythingabout
requiredcomponents to build appropriate sentences. These definitionswill give
more
clarficationsof it. Janet (2001:2)“Grammaris the set ofstructuralrules
governing the composition ofclauses, phrases, and wordsin any given natural
language”.Toaffirmthedefinition,thewriteralsohasquotedfromtheother
source:“Grammaristhesetoflanguagerulesthatyouuse,mostofthetime unconsciously,
to create phrases and sentences that convey meaning”
samedefinition aboutgrammar,so itcanbesaid thatgrammar is likearoute
indicatortoguidesomeonesothathisideaandfeelinghetries tospeak,canbe
manifested.Grammarorlanguageregulationconsistsofmany formations.Toget
theanswersofresearch,thewriterhas decided toanalyzesomeofthem,they
are:SubjectVerb Agreement,Singular Plural,ToInfinitive, PassiveVoice, Forms of
2.4.1. Subject Verb Agreement
Azar(1999:10),Subject-verbagreementmeans thatthesubjectandverb
endingsagreeinnumber.Determining singularorpluralendingscanbeconfusing
becausean-sendingonanounindicatesplural,whereasan-sendingonaverb indicates
singular form.For examples:
-Thedog barkseverynight. (Onedog=singular verb)
-Thedogsbark everynight. (More than onedog=pluralverb)
Thesubjectofevery sentenceiseithersingularorplural,andthat
determinestheendingof theverb.
-SINGULAR:
-I chew.You laugh.Waterdrips. Timeflies. Hesings.
-Themansittingon thesteps worksin thelibrary.
-PLURAL:
-Weknow. Theystretch. Thestampsstick.
-Themen sittingon thesteps work in thelibrary.
-COMPOUNDSUBJECTS
Subjectsjoined byand takeapluralverb.For example:
-Myaunt and mysistervisit me every year.
Whenthesubjectwordsarejoinedby either... or,neither...nor,ornot only. . .
but,theverbagrees with thesubjectclosest to it.For examples:
-Either her brothersor herfather hasthemoney.
-BURIEDSUBJECTS
Whenwordgroupsseparatethesubjectandtheverb,locatethesubject word to
determinewhether to useasingular or pluralverb.For examples:
-The tulipsin thepoton thebalconyneed watering.
-High levelsof air pollutioncausedamageto therespiratorytract.
-Everyonein our family, includingmysister, hastaken pianolessons.
Phrasesstartingwith thefollowingwordsare normallynot part of the
subject:including,alongwith,togetherwith,accompaniedby,inadditionto,as wellas,
except, with, no lessthan.
-CLAUSES ANDPHRASESASSUBJECTS
Whenawholeclauseorphraseisthesubject,useasingularverb.For examples:
-WhatI want to know is whyIcan't trythetest again.
-To livehappilyseemslikeaworthwhilegoal.
Whenwho,which,andthatareusedasasubject,theverbagreeswiththe word
thatwho, which,orthatrefersto.Forexamples:
-Theyare thestudentswho studyhard.
-He isthestudentwho studiesthehardest.
-Thepeople in my classwho arestudyinghard do a lotof extrareading.
-SUBJECTSAFTERVERBS
Whenasentencebegins with thereplus aformofbe(thereis, thereare,
therewas,ortherewere),thesubjectalwaysfollowstheverb.Theverbagrees with this
subject.For examples:
-There isagood movieon TVtonight.
-Therearetoo manyold movieson TV.
Ifthenormalorderofverbfollowingsubjectis reversed,theverbagrees with
thesubjectitfollows.For example:
-At theback of theroom arethreewindowsand a doorto theoffice.
-SUBJECTSWITHSINGULARVERBS
Somewords thatseemtohavepluralmeanings takeasingular
verb:anybody,anyone,each,either, every,everybody,everyone,everything,
neither,none, no one, nobody, somebody, someone, something.In additition, the
following wordsareconsideredassingular:-ing forms;somenounsending in-s,
(suchas news,physics,measles,politics,series);andsubjectclauses beginning with
what.
Collectivenouns suchas jury,committee,club,audience,crowd,class,
team,troop,family,andcoupleareusually treatedassingular.Whenthesubjectis an
amount, theverb is singular.
-Twenty-five centsisone-fourth of adollar.
When oneofisfollowed byapluralnoun,theverb is singular.
Titles, companynames, and wordsused asterms, usesingularverbs.
2.4.2. SingularPlural
A singular noun refersto1(one)only;apluralnoun refersto2(two)or
more.There are two thingsto note aboutsingular and pluralnouns. Thefirst isthat
theychangetheirformdependingonwhethertheyaresingularorplural.Every change
isnot alwaysthesamebecauseEnglish hasitsformulated rules:
-REGULAR NOUNS
Mostsingular nounsform thepluralbyadding-s.For examples:
Singular Plural
boat boats
house houses
cat cats
river rivers
Asingularnounendingin s,x,z,ch,sh makesthepluralbyadding-es. For
examples:
Singular Plural
bus buses
wish wishes
pitch pitches
box boxes
Asingularnounendinginaconsonantandthenymakesthepluralby
droppingtheyand adding-ies.For examples:
Singular Plural
penny pennies
spy spies
baby babies
city cities
daisy daisies
-IRREGULAR NOUNS
Singular Plural
woman women
man men
child children
tooth teeth
foot feet
Somenounshavethesameforminthesingularandtheplural.Theseare someof
thewords:
Singular Plural
sheep sheep
fish fish
deer deer
species species
-IRREGULAR VERB/NOUNAGREEMENT
Somenounshaveapluralformbuttakeasingular verb.Look at thebelow
someof thewords:
PluralNounsUsed witha Singular
Verb
Sentence
News Thenewsisat6.30 p.m.
athletics Athleticsisgood foryoungpeople.
linguistics Linguisticsisthestudyof language.
Darts Dartsisapopular gamein England.
billiards Billiardsisplayed allover theworld.
Somenounshaveafixedpluralformandtakeapluralverb.They arenot
usedinthesingular,orthey haveadifferentmeaninginthesingular.Nounslike this
include:trousers, jeans, glasses, savings, thanks, steps, stairs, customs,
congratulations, tropics, wages, spectacles, outskirts, goods, wits.
PluralNounwithPlural Verb
Sentence
trousers Mytrousersare too tight.
Jeans Her jeansareblack.
2.4.3. ToInfinitive
Theinfinitiveisagrammar termthatreferstoabasicverbformthatoften
actsasanounandisoftenprecededby theword"t
sentence.
-Verbfollowedwith‘ToInfinitive’
There aresomeverbs that mustbefollowedwith‘toinfinitive’.For examples:
-Theyintended to renovate their house.
-Shepretendsto besick.
Theresomeverbsmustbefollowedwithobjectandthen‘toinfinitive’. For
examples:
-Hewantsme to leavehimalone.
-Heforced usto do hishomework.
-‘ToInfinitive’ UsedafterNounandAdjective
Whensentenceismade,notewhetheritisnounoradjective,‘toinfinitive’
verbmustbe applied. For examples:
-The tree istoo highto climb.
-‘ToInfinitive’ Usedafter QuestionWordsin NounClause
NounClauseisasubordinateclauseinordertomakethesentenceoften
usequestion words.For examples:
-Idon’tknowwhereto go.
-He learned how to fixcarsfromhisfather.
2.4.4. PassiveVoice
Typically, therearetwokinds ofsentence,activeandpassivesentence.
Activesentenceis usedwhen thefocus is onsubjectbutpassivesentenceis used
whenthefocusison theaction. Itisnotimportantornotknown,however,whoor what
isperformingtheaction.In English,each timesomeonewantsto usepassive sentence,
pastparticipleverband‘to be’mustbeapplied.Theuseof‘tobe’ depends onused tense.
This thepattern must be followed to make passive sentence:“Subject+finite
formofto be+Past Participle”. For examples:
-Active: We clean thehouseeveryday.
Passive:Thehouse iscleaned byusevery day.
-Active:Theywillfinish thereportsoon.
Passive:Thereportwillbefinished bythem.
2.4.5. Formsof Adjective
AdjectiveisThepartofspeech (or wordclass)thatmodifiesanoun or a pronoun.
In English, there are three forms of adjective, namely: Positive/Negative
Degree.Positive/NegativeDegreeisused toindicate likeor unlike.Thisisthe pattern:
“SubjectPronoun+tobe+ as(adjective)as+ObjectPronoun”.For examples:
-Mybrother isas strongasmyfather.
-Iamnot asbeautiful asmymother.
ComparativeDegreeisaformused tocompareanatureof twothingswhere one
ismore than theother one.For examples:
-Myfather is smarter than mybrother.
-Sisca ismorediligent than Rebecca.
ForComparativeDegree,onething mustbenoticed,if theadjectiveisone- syllable,
at the end of its word mustbe added ‘er’.For examples:
-My shoesischeaper than his shoes.
-Andiworksharder than Clark.
Andifanadjectiveconsistsoftwo-syllablesanditisendedwith‘le’,‘ow’,
‘er’,‘some’,and‘y’,addedwith‘er’.For‘y’,itmustbedroppedandaddedwith
‘ier’.For examples:
-Mycoffee isbitterer than hiscoffee
-Ryan isnaughtier than Bobby.
Thesametreatmentwillbeapplied to SuperlativeDegreebut thedifferent is
one-syllabeaddedwith‘est’andifitswordisendedwith: ‘le’,‘ow’,‘er’,‘some’,
and‘y’,addedwith‘est’butnotfor‘y’,itmustbedropped and addedwith ‘iest’. For
examples:
-Jane isthe mostbeautifulgirl in ourclass.
-Andre isthehappiestperson intheworld.
2.4.6. Redundancy
Johnson(2001:56)saysthat:“Redundancy(ortautology)istheaddingof
wordsorphrasesthataddnothingtotheoverallmeaningbecausetheirsenses
havealreadybeen expressed”.From thestatement, it can besaid thatredundancy
incorrect.For examples:
-Incorrect :Thenew innovationsattheWorld’sFair werefascinating.
-Correct :The innovationsat theWorld’sFair werefascinating.
-Incorrect :The moneyIhave issufficient enough formyneeds.
-Correct :The moneyIhave issufficientfor myneeds.
2.4.7. Preposition
Prepositionisapartofspeechgoverning,andusually precedinganounor
pronounandexpressing arelation toanotherwordor element inthe clause.
Prepositionhasmany functionsandtypesinsentences,sointhisthesis,thewriter
isgoingtoanalyzeprepositionoftimeandplace.Inindicatingtimeandplace,
therearefiveprepositionsused,they are:at,in,on,for,andsince.Tablebelow will
explain usageof thoseprepositions:
Preposition Time
At 1.Timeof Clock.
2.Short and PreciseTime.
-atnoon, atsunset.
1.Month or Year.
-in January, in 1945.
2.Particulartime of day, month,or
In year.
-in morning, in summer.
3.Specifictime in past,century, or etc.
-in 21st century, in past.
1.Day.
-on Monday.
On 2.Date.
-on 5th of March, on March 5.
3.ParticularDay.
-onIndependenceDay.
For 1.Duration of Time.
-for two hours.
Since
1.Fromacertainpointoftime(past- now).
-sinceyesterday.
Preposition
Place
At 1.Used for Confined Place.
-athome, at thiscollege, at theschool
In 1.Place Having some Boundary
-inAmerica,inabuilding,ingarden, etc.
On .Surfaceof Soething.
-at the entrance,atfrontofchair,etc.
(www.englishpractice.com)
2.4.8. ParallelismStructure
Richard(2006:259)Parallelismissimilarity ofstructureinapairorseries
ofrelatedwords,phrases,orclauses.Parallelismsentenceorstructureiswords
usedtodescribeorindicatesomething wherepartsofspeechmustbethesame,in
ordertoconnectit,usingconjunctionandtheconjunctionhasbeenformulated. These
aretheformulas:
Parallelism Examples
-Notonly But also
-Both And
- And
-She isnot only beautiful but also
smart.
-He isboth a guitaristand a vocalist.
-My sisterdecides to study and to work
neither nor -Neither mybrother nor my sisters
loveplayingchesslike me.
verb/aux
N1 N2 +
either or
-Either theworkers or the system needsto beimproved.
(www.englishpractice.com)
2.4.9. MissplacedWord
Grammarconductslanguageusertoconstructanappropriatesentenceto
deliverhismeaningtoothers.Themeaningwillneversendcorrectly ifword arrangement
isincorrector calledit missplaced word.Missplacedword isaword,
phrase,orclausethatdoesnotclearlyrelatetowhatitisintendedtomodify. These aresome
examplesof missplaced word/s:
-Incorrect :Andrewtoldusaftertheholidaythatheintendstostop drinking.
-Correct :Andrewtoldusthatheintendstostopdrinkingafterthe holiday.
-Incorrect :Jack can hearJillwhen shewhispersclearly.
-Correct :Jack canclearlyhear Jillwhen shewhispers.
2.5. TheImpact ofGrammaticalErrorinEssay
Theexistenceofgrammarincommunicatingactivity,tohelppeopleso
thatthesharingactivity canrunfluently andasaresult,everygoalwouldliketo
achievecanaccomplish.Unfortunately,eventhoughlanguageiscommonthing
forpeople,communicationismissedsincetheydonotusetherightstructure.
grammarisnotappliedtotellordescribesomethinginessay.Thewriterhas collected
somedatas which informpeopleif grammaticalerror in writing.
-Grammatical errorcan cause intended meaningdistorted.
-Grammatical error will change the meaning.
-Grammaticalerrormakesthemeaningishighlyunlikelyorcompletely
ridiculous.
-Grammatical errorcausesreadersdifficult to understand.
-Grammaticalerrorcausesthesentenceseemawkwardanddoesnotmake sense.
