TRI THQC T R O N G H O C TAP
CUA HOC SINH PHO THONG
Phan Trpng Ngo Le Minh Nguyet
Trudng Dgi hgc Supham Hd Ngi.
TOM TAT
Bdi viet de cap tdi vdn de Iri Ihirc trong day hoc phd thdng. Chit di chinh Id xdy dung dinh nghia cd linh ldm viec ve tri thirc. Theo dd, tri thirc dugc hiiu Id mdt mem lin dimg da duac bien minh: Id qud trinh ndng dgng cita cd nhdn trong viec hinh Ihdnh niem tin cd ca sd tir hieu biel chdn ly Tri thire la kit qud cita hoc Idp vd trdi nghiem cd nhdn. Id su thdng nhdt hiru ca giira ly ludn tir ly tinh, suy tudng vdi kinh nghiem Ihirc chirng td- quan sdt vd Ihuc nghiem Nhung khdng phdi la su kUt hap, su "Idng ghep" cdi ndy vdi cdi kia, md Id su sinh thanh vd chuyen hda cua cd hai trong hoat ddng ciia con ngudi Vi vay, phuang ihirc hieu qud trong viec hinh thanh vd phdt trien tri thirc, hinh thdnh phdt trien cd tinh, pham cdch cd nhdn Id td chirc cho hgc sinh hinh thdnh In thirc thdng qua hoat ddng thuc lien vd tri tue tu do.
'Xir khoa; Tn thirc, Ddc trung cua Iri thirc ciia hoc sinh, Cdp do tn Ihirc cua hgc sinh: Cdc chien luac hinh thdnh tri thirc a hgc sinh.
Ngdy nhdn bdi 23/1/2020; Ngdy duyet ddng bdi: 25/2/2020.
1. Dat van dc
Mpt trong nhtrng viin dd then chdi, nhung dang rat biit cap cua giao due phd thdng la tri thitc ciin hinh thanh cho bpc sinh. Tri thuc ludn dugc coi la muc lieu hang diu, la npi dung ijuan trpng trong day bpc, nhung ban than van dl tri thitc cdn rit map md. Nhilu diiu ludng don gian nhu: Tri thitc la gl va dac trung ciia nd din nhirng vin dl phuc lap nhu ngudn gdc va sy hinh thanh ciia tri tbii'c nhu tbl nao? NIU coi iri thirc la muc tidu ciia day hgc thi nhtrng tri thuc nao cin dupc day trong trudng phd thdng va chung dupe hinh thanh theo phuong thitc nao?... van chua dudc sang td. Diiu nay khdng chi d Viet Nam, ma cdn phd biin d nhilu nudc trdn thi gidi. Theo danh gia cua M. Young, fri thttc la vin dl loan ciu - mgi td chirc qude td diu ban din nd... nhung chimg ta lai hiu nhu khdng bilt tri thirc thyc sy la gi vii khdng bidt lam tha nao da tao ra tri thirc mdi... (M. Young, 2013).
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Rd rang, fri thiic la vin dl rit quan frgng vii rat ldn. Vi vay, fri thuc can duoc phan tich sau trong viae thilt kl va td chirc trian khai chuang frinh giao due cua nha trudng. Bai vilt nay dl cap tdi mgt sd khia canh lien quan tryc tiep tdi cac chu dl trdn, nhim gdp phin xac dinh ca sd dd lya chpn nhung fri thuc cin dugc hinh thanh va phat triin d hpc sinh theg cac phuong thitc khac nhau.
2. Noi dung 2.L Khdi niem tri thtic 2.1.1. Dinh nghia ve tri thirc
Nut thit diu tidn cin thao gd lii dinh nghTa vl tri thuc. Tiac rang, trong hiu hit tai lidu bidn cd vl kbpa hpc giao due, thilu ving mpt iJinh nghTa rd rang vl fri thirc (lia Tbl Ngtr, 2001; Thai Duy Tuydn, 2008; Tran_Thi Tuyet Oanh, 2006; Trin Ba Hoanh, 2007; Nguyin Huu Chau, 2005; Nguyen Ba Kim, 2008; Phan Trpng Luan, 2012; Dang Vii Hpat, 2004).
Trong ddi sdng bang ngay, cac thuat ngtr tri thuc, kien thirc hay hieu biit, thudng dupc dting vdi cung nghTa nhin manh su hieu biet cda ca nhan vd cac su vat, bien lupng ty nhien, xa hpi va con ngudi (Btii Hien, 2001; Thai Duy Tuydn, 2008), Nhiing thuat ngu Iran, trong tiing Anh diu la knowledge, vdi nghla la nhiing du kien, thdng tin, hiiu biit, sy md ta cimg ky ndng cd dupc qua cac trai nghiem va hpc tap ciia ban than (Oxford advanced learner's Dictionary, 2010).
Trong nhan thdc luan (epistemology), tri thitc dupc hidu khac. Ngay tit cd dai, Platp da dinh nghTa: Tri thiic la mgt niem tin dung da dugc bien minh (Knowledge is a justified true belief) (Plato, 2018). Quan niem ciia Plato ngay cang dupc nhidu ngudi thira nhan va phat tridn. Nonaka va cdng sy (2011), chp ring, tri thuc la mdt qua trinh nang ddng cua con ngudi trong vide bien minh niam tin ca nhan hudng idi chan ly (A dynamic human process of justifying personal belief towards the truth). Nhu vay, tri thirc id qud trinh ndng dgng ciia con ngudi trong vide hinh thanh niem tin cd co sd tit hidu bidt chan ly. N I U cit ngang tai mdi thdi diem, thi tri thirc Id niem tin (belief) ve mgt sir that (chdn ly) ndo dd (true), duac hinh thdnh, kiem chimg vd chimg minh (justification) bdng phuang thirc, phuang phdp ndo do: tire la dua tren su hieu biit vi sir that do.
Khi Galileo khing dinh "Trai dat quay", khdng phai dng ndi ldn hiiu bilt vd vQ try, ma la niem tin vd sy chuyen ddng ciia vii try, dupc chiing minh bing chudi ngay dai quan sat va phan tich cua minh. Tuydn ngdn "Khdng cd gi quy han ddc lap lu do" cua Hd Chu Ijeh la niim tin cua Ngudi, dupc hinh thanh bdi hidu bidt va triii nghiem cua ca cudc ddi.
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Trong tri thtic, hieu biet vd niim lin duac xdy dirng tir hiiu biit la hai thdnh td quan he hiiu ca vdi nhau, nhu hai mat ciia td giiy. Hiiu bilt lam cho ddi tuang dupc sang to, cdn niim tin la thai do, cam xuc, gia tri, hanh ddng, tinh each ciia ca nhan ddi vdi ddi tugng dd. Hidu bidt la co sd dl hinh thanh niim tin. Niem tin dupc xay dung trdn ndn tang bilu bilt, la niim tin khoa hpc, khac vdi due tin tdn giao va khac vdi niim tin mil quang, dya fren sy thilu hieu bidt yl ddi tugng. Dirac - nha vat ly ly thuylt ndi tiing khing djnh: Tdi chi cd thi tin cdi gi Id dung (dan theo Heisenberg, 2009). Cdn theo Kant (2005), "Hai dilutran ngap tam tu vdi sy ngudng md va kinh sp ludn ludn mdi me va gia tang mdi khi nghi ddn, dd la bau trdi ddy sao tren ddu tdi vd quy ludt ludn ly a trong toT.
Lau nay, khi ndi tdi tri thirc, ngirdi ta thudng nhdn manh tdi hiiu biit, ft ie y dan niem tin, trong khi dp, niim tin mdi thyc sy lam ndn tri thirc, ma nlu thidu nd, tbi dan thuan chi la thdng tin dupc "chi biin" va dupe ca nhan sir dung tran con dudng tidp can chan ly,
2.1.2. Phdn biet tri thirc vdi dir lieu, thdng tin vd hieu biet trong tri ihirc DS lieu, thdng tin va hidu bidt trong tri thitc cd sy khae nhau va quan he vdi nhau, Su phan biet nay rat can trong day hgc.
Dii- lieu la nhirng tin hidu, con sd, chii vidt, hinh anh, am thanh v.v. riang biet; la vat mang thdng tin; la vat lieu da san xuat thdng tin. Thdng tin la sy phan anh mgt su vat, hien tugng, sy kien hay qua trinh nao dd ciia the gidi tu nhidn, xa hpi, con ngudi, thdng qua khao sat tryc tidp hay gian tidp (Dang Hiru, 2001), Thdng tin la co sd quan trgng cua hidu bidt. Hieu biet la sy cau true lai thdng tin nhd cac thao tac nhan thire (phan tich, tdng hpp, so sanh, khai quat, quy nap, suy luan) va kinh nghiem, nham tao ra cac gia tri cho ca nhan. Chdi luang ngudn thdng tin dupc tidp nhan va trinh do xir ly thdng tin cila chii tha quyet dinh chat lupng cua hidu bidt. Ddi vdi mdi ca nhan, khdng cd thdng tin se khdng cd hidu bidt, nhung khdng phai ctr cd thdng tin la cd hidu bidt. Trong nhiau trudng hop, ca nhan chim ngap trong "be " thdng tin nhung van ''ddi' hieu biet, do khdng bill xd ly chung. Mat khac, hieu biet chua phdi Id tri thirc, ma chi la thdng tin dupc ciu true lai bdi chu tbl. Dl trd thanh tri thirc, sy bilu biet phai chuyin thdnh sice manh thirc tinh luang tam, lyang tri cua chit tha; chii the y thirc duac gid tri ciia hiiu bilt dd; chuyin hda Ihdnh niam tin, thanh ddng lyc va djnh hudng cho hanh dpng; hinh thanh thdi quen, dao due va tinh each. Tri thiie ldm nen nhdn each; la muc dich, la cdu canh ciia ca nhan; cdn hieu biet la cdng cu, la phuang tidn dd tidp nhan tri thuc.
Nhu vay, ddi vdi mdi ca nhan, dO lieu, thdng tin, hidu bilt vd ddi tugng la cdc cip do trong tri ihilc. Trong dd, cd su chuyin hda ttr dii lieu, thdng tin
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khach quan thdnh hiiu biit chit quan-, tir hieu biet chuyen thdnh in thirc, bote nhdn cd niim tin, do hiiu biit mang lai Vide thu thap du lieu, thong tin ya hinh thanh hidu bilt cd ihl dupc thyc bicn bing phuong phap truyen thu - tiep thu, nhung sy hinh thdnh vd phdt triin tri Ihirc chii yeu qua trdi nghiem. ren nin tang fri thuc, cac hanh ddng cua ca nhan trd ndn nhan dao va sang tao.
Sang lao Tri Ihirc Hieu biel 'Thdng tin Dtr lieu
Hinh 1: Cdc yiu td lien quan tdi tri thirc
Mdt quan niem diy du vl tri thuc ggi ra nhidu van dd trong day hoc. Day hgc hidu qua khdng dimg d vide cung ciip thdng tin, hinh thiinh hiiu bidt vd ndi dung mon hpc, ma cin hudng ddn giup hpc sinh each tidp can cac ngudn thdng tin; each xir ly chung dl cd hidu bidt; giiip cac em each sir dung hidu bidt vao cac tinh hudng cu thd, qua dd hinh thdnh niem tin, thdi quen, dgo dire, tinh cdch trong cudc sdng; giup ciie em cam thy cai Chan, cai Thidn, cai Dep cua hieu biet;
khoi ngudn cam himg, khat vpng va dam md sang tao tri thirc cho ban than.
2.1.3. Bieu hien cua tri thirc
Tri thirc cd bai binh thirc bidu hien: tri thirc hien hiru va tri thirc ngam dn (Nonaka va cdng sy, 2011). Tri thuc hien bilu la tri thitc dupc tbl hien qua cac van ban, dudi dang ky hieu, chii vidt, ldi ndi, sach, tai lieu, am thanh, phim, anh... Bang nhung hinh thuc hien huu, tri thuc dupe biio tdn, dugc tich luy qua cao the he, cac thdi dai. Cting nhd hinh thirc bicn hiru nay, tri thuc cd the dugc chuydn giao theo nhidu phuang thitc khac nhau nhu: qua giao due gia dinh, nha trudng, xa hdi va qua ty hgc hdi cua ca nhiin. Tri thirc ngim in la tri [hire dugc bidu bidn qua he thdng thai do va hanh ddng da dang ciia ca nhiin.
Tlidi do vd hdnh ddng phdn dnh tri thirc ciia cd nhdn. Ching ban, hanh ddng giai bai loan cua hgc sinh; hanh ddng giang day va giao due cua giao vidn; didu mua cua ngudi nghe sy; hanh dpng ciia ngudi tha hay cua ciu thii dii tidng-
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hanh dpng chiia benh cua thiiy thudc; hanh vi quan he, giao tiip, ting xir;
phongcach sdng cua ca nhan v.v. Tri thirc ngdm dn mang dam tinh cd nhdn, gdii liin vdi bdi cdnh ya cdng viec cu thi (Nonaka va cdng sy, 2011). Tri thirc ngim khd dugc he thdng hda nhu fri thirc bidn hiru, nhung cd tinh van banh cao, thd hien chan thuc va rd rang trinh do tri thuc cua ca nhan ciing nhu tac ddng ciia tri thirc ddn ca nhan.
2.2. Bgc trung cua tri thuc a hgc sinh
2 2.1. Tri thuc Id ket qud cua viec hoc tap, trdi nghiem
Hidu biet cung nhu nidm tin cua trd cm cd thd dugc ndy sinh tit nhien nhu bidt di, bidt ndi hay hanh vi ung xir cd ngudn gdc ttr co ihl, til' van hda cd (hiinh vi tryc giac; dire tin, hanh vi tin nguong, tdn giao, truyin thdng v.v.), la nhung hieu biet cd tinh bdm sinh, khdng theo con dudng hgc tap, ma theo co cha di truyan qua "gen sinh hpc" va "gen van hda" (Dawkins, 1976; Murray Stein, 2011). Nhung hidu bidt va nidm tin nhu vay, khdng thudc vd tri thirc. Tri thirc dugc hinh thdnh iheo con dirdng hgc tap, trdi nghiem-, qua sy tuong tac xii hdi gitta ca nhan vdi ngudi khac va vdi vat pham van hda, khoa hpc, cdng nghe, xa hpi (Zambardo, 1985; Nonaka, 2011). Qua trinh tidp thu tri thuc didn ra trong mdi trudng kinh nghiem cua ca nhan theo lira tudi (Dewey, 2012;
Zambardo, 1985; Piaget, 1952); theo co che hpc each sir dyng cdng cu tam ly, van hda trong cac tinh hudng xac djnh (Vygotsky, 1978); theo phuong thirc ddng hoa va didu irng cac kinh nghiem da cd (Piaget, 1952); theo phuang thirc nhap tam va xuit tam (Galperin, 1978) va qua trai nghiem (Dewey, 2012).
2.2.2. Ndng lire sdn sinh ciia tri thirc
Mpt dac trung khac ciia tri thirc la ndng luc sdn sinh ra tri thirc mdi (Morin, 2006). Day ciing la diiu khac bidt giua tri thirc va thdng tin. Thdng lin ludn la tap hgp rdi rac, khdng cd kha nang san sinh ra thdng tin mdi. Khi chu thi ciu true cac thdng tin, tao ra hiiu bilt, thi tai thdi didm dd, xuat hien tidm nang sdn sinh ra tri thirc mdi. Khi hgc sinh cd tri thitc ve dien tich hinh chtr nhat S = ab, cac em cd ihl suy ra each tinh dien tich hinh binh hanh, hinh tam giac vudng v.v. Do dac tinh san sinh, ndn tri thuc ludn ludn cd khd ndng dir bdo. Theo Bruner (1960), tri Ihiic la mdt he thdng nhan thirc vdi ba dac trung:
tinh tiit kiem, khd ndng sdn sinh ra cai mdi va sire manh. Didu nay dat rii yeu ciu, trong nha trudng cin thilt kl chuang trinh day hgc cd tinh phdt trien va linh du bdo cao, trong dd he thdng khai niem khoa hpc bp mdn ludn la mdt he thdng phdt trien.
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2.2.3. Tri thirc a tre em la he thong md, ludn van dgng
Tri thire khdng phai la nhiing van ban, nhttng phan irng ridng Id, nhung
"quy trinh in" hay nhung thdi quen dn djnh, rdi rac ma la mdt ijua trinh nang dpng Iidn tuc md rdng hiiu bilt va diiu chinh niim tin hudng vd chan ly theo chu trinh phdt triin, gidng nhu mpt ddng chay khdng ngimg: Td chu'c fri thiic xa hpi (bdn ngoai): (fri thitc hien huu) - Chuydn vao trong (fri thdc tiam nang) - Xa hdi hda tri thirc ca nhan - Tri thiie hien huu va tri thirc ngam an — Td chirc fri thirc xa hdi (vdng tiip theo). Sy van ddng ciia hiiu bilt theo chidu ngang va chilu dgc din din phii djnh hidu bilt cii, lac hau (phii dinh bidn chirng, khdng phai buy hoai), hinh thanh tri thirc mdi, ngay cang tiip can din chan ly. Sy phat triin theo vdng xoay trdn dc cua tri thirc, tao co sd va didu kidn dd chu thd dieu chinh niim tin, giup nidm tin virng chac hon, manh me hem.
2.2.4. Tri thirc id dao dire, thdm my, tinh cdch vd pham chat nhdn cdch cd nhdn
Tinh dao due, thim my la dac trung cao ca ciia tri thirc. Theo Nonaka (2011) tri thtic mang tinh chti quan, tinh qua trinh va tinh tham my. Tri thirc chinh la sy chuyin hda ttr hiiu biet (chan ly) ddn thdi do tich arc (Thidn) va cuoi ciing la din cdi dep trong cudc sdng ca nhan va xa hpi (My), tire la ba gia tri phd quat va vTnh hang ciia nhan loai. Theo Bacon cho rang "Chan ly chi dupc phan xet bdi chinh nd. Ngudi tinh eua nd la sy khao khat kidm tim, sy hien didn ciia nd la hidu biat va niam vui cua nd la nidm tin, la dja hat ciia cai thien trong con ngudi" (dan theo Michael F.D. Young, 2013). Theo Kant tri thuc la sy chuyen hda ttr hiau biet ly tinh thuan tuy — dao dire (ly tinh thyc hanh) ^ t h a m my (nang lyc phan doan). Dd la sy chuydn hda tir gdc den nggn cua ba van dd co biin cua con ngudi: Tdi cd thd biat gi? — Tdi phai Iam gi? — Tdi cd thd hy vpng gi? (Kant, 2004, 2007, 2007a). Einstein cdng da cd nhan xet rat sau sac: "Su ldn lao trong khoa hgc chii yeu la mdt vdn di cd tinh" (din theo Nguydn Xuan Sanh, 2009).
2.3. Cdc cap dp tri thirc a Itpc sinh
2.3.1. Phdn chia dua tren hoat ddng nhdn thirc cua cd nhdn: Tri thirc cdm tinh vd Tri thirc ly tinh
Cac nha nghian ciiu vii thyc hanh giao due ddu thdng nhit: Hoat ddng nhan thirc cd bai cap dp: Cdm tinh, bao gdm cac boat dpng cam giac va tri giac va Ly tinh la boat ddng cila tu duy, tudng tupng (Zambardo, 1985- Feldman 1997; Pham Minh Hac, 2016).
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Theo phuang dipn khiic, Piaget (1952) cho ring, sy phat tridn nhan thuc cua tre em tir sa sinh ddn 1 1 - 1 2 tudi, trai qua hai giai doan ldn:
TirO - 6 den 7 tudi, giai doan nhdn thirc cdm tinh, vdi dac trung vice phan tich, so sanh, khai quat va suy luan cac hinh anh dl tao ra su bilu bilt bing each xep ke cac hinh anh tri giac, tao thanh tri thirc cam tinh. Tri thuc cdm tinh bao gdm cdc hinh dnh tri gidc: hinh dnh tinh thdn, cdc biiu iugng dugc khdi qudt hda trit-c quan vd suy luan true quan
Til 7 - 8 tudi ddn 1 1 - 1 2 tudi, giai doan hinh thanh nhan thirc ly tinh, vdi sir xuat hien cdc thao tdc tu duy. Trong giai doan nay cd hai thdi ky: 7 - 8 tudi ddn 9 - 10 tudi, tre triin khai cac thao tac tu duy dua vao hiinh ddng thyc, chua cd kha nang gia djnh. Dua tre Iiim vd mdt cai cdc, do "lay vung" keo trdn tu, sc chiu hinh phat nhe ban lam vd ba cai, khi giup me "rua cdc". Tit 11 - 12 tudi trd ldn, tre thao tac tren cac mcnh dd, ky hidu, cd linh gia dinh. Tir day, lu duy ly luan thyc sy xuai hien, hinh thanh tri Ihirc khoa hoc. Tre tin rang, lam va mpi cai cdc do "lay vung" keo ldi nang ban lam vd ba cai do giup me "rira bat" (Piaget, 1952).
Nhu vay, xet ca chidu ngang va chidu dpc, cac tri thirc khoa hpc, tri thiic ly tinh thyc sy cd d tri em tir 11 - 12 tudi va cd co sd tir nhan thire cam tinh, vdi dac trung la xuat hien va van hanh ciia tu duy thao tac va tudng tupng ly tinh.
2.3.2. Dua vdo tinh chdi khoa hoc cita tri thirc: Tri thirc thdng thudng vd Tri thirc khoa hoc
Thuat ngir tri thuc thdng thudng va tri thirc khoa hgc dupc Vygotsky sir dung trong cac nghien ciru vd sy phat tridn khai nidm khoa hpc d tre em (Vygotsky, 1978). Gitta tri thirc thdng thudng va tri thu'c khoa hgc cd nhidu dac trung rat khac nhau:
- Tri thirc thdng thirdng cd a tre em trirdc 6 tudi. Id td hap cdc sir kien, cdc hinh dnh, kinh nghiem rdi rac, ldn xdn, tiiy himg, ton tai bdn canh nhau (kd nhau), ddng ding nhau hoac dupc id bc;p lai thanh bidu tupng chung; Id sdn phdm ciia lu duy tiin thao tdc, tu duy xIp kl, khiii quat va suy luan tryc quan, bj chi phoi bdi dac tinh "ly ky trung tam" cua ire. Dac trung cua tri thuc Ihdng thudng la tinh chdi ngdu hirng, dupc thi hien vd sir dung bdng ngdn ngd-.
- Tri thirc khoa hgc thirdng xudt hien a Ire em 11 - 12 tudi. Id mgt he Ihdng cd cdu trite tang bdc chat che, theo cdc lap, thir bdc cdc su kien; la san phim cua tu duy thao tac, phan tich, tdng hgp iriru tupng hda, khai quat hda, suy luan, xdp hang, nhdm gdp v.v. Dac trung cua fri thirc khoa hgc la tinh y thire, cd chd y; dupe didn dat bdi ngdn ngtr khoa hpc.
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- Tri thirc thdng thudng duac hinh thdnh ngdu nhien, tu phdt theo con dudng lir dudi len, thdng qua cac hanh dpng thuc, qua trai nghidtn ciia ca nhan, hanh ddng thu - sai, tii don gian, cip thip din phitc tap, tinh chat cap cap. Tn thitc khoa hgc dugc hinh thanh theo con dudng tir trdn xudng, bang hoat dpng hpc cac khai nicin khoa hpc, theo xu hudng tir cac tinh chat phdc tap, cap cao ciia khoa hpc, din cac tinh chit don gian, cu tbl. Tri thiic khoa hpc duoc hinh thanh Iran "nin" cua tri thire thdng thudng da dupc chin mudi (trinh dp phat triin hien tai). Day chinh la quy luat vl sy tuong tac giua hai trinh dp phat triin: viing hien tai va viing phdt trien gdn trpng day hgc - mdt phat hien dac sic ctia Vygotsky. Day hpc phat tridn, khdng hudng ddn day tri thiic thdng thudng ma hudng den tri thile khoa hgc, tiic la tac ddng vao viing phat tridn gan d trd em (Vygotsky, 1978).
2.4. Cdc chiin luac hinh thdnh tri thiic khoa hpc 6 hpc sinh vd cdc loai tri thirc tu-ffng irng
Cbiln lupc hinh thanh tri thiic quyet dinh tinh chdi cdc loai tri thirc khoa hgc va quy dinh su lira chgn phuang phdp day hgc, nham hinh thanh tri thuc cho hpc sinh trong nha trudng.
2.4.1. Chien luac khdi qudt kinh nghiem ve sti vat - Tri thirc thuc chimg ve ddi tuang
Trong nhan thuc luan, kinh nghiam la nhiing cai (dieu) ca nhan thu dupc bang quan sat hay hanh ddng trdn sy vat, hien tugng "cd thuc"; kinh nghiem la kat qua ctia "nhin thay", khdng phai cua "cam nhan" tir ly tinh thuan tiiy (Sahakan va cdng su, 2001). Kinh nghiem dugc hidu la thye chimg, ddi lap vdi ly luan thuan tuy (sidu hinh).
Khdi qudt kinh nghiem Id chil the trien khai cdc thao tdc nhdn thiec (quan sdt, phdn tich, so sdnh, truM tuang)^ de khdi qudt cdc kinh nghiem, hinh thdnh tri thirc ve su vat, hien tuang trong the gidi tu nhien, xd hdi vd can ngirdi
Cd hai loai khai quat kinh nghiem: Khdi qudt hinh thuc biiu hien cua cac su vat, hien tucmg va khai quat sy van ddng ciia su vat, hien tupng (khdi qudt ndi dung sir vat).
Khai quat hinh thire Id chii the trien khai cdc thao tdc phdn tich, so sdnh vd khdi qudt nhiing sir kien ve hinh thirc cita su vat, hien tirang cu thi, rieng da cd trong kinh nghiem, thdnh mdt bieu tugng chung cho mgt nhdm sir vat, hien tuang. Khai quat binh thirc dupc tiip can thep quan didm sieu hinh.
Ydu cau cua khiii quat kinh nghiem la cac fri thire dupc hinh thanh dya vao kinh nghiem hien tai thu dugc qua quan sal khach quan, theo nguydn tic
32 TAP CHiTAM Vi HOC, Sd 3 (252), 3 - 2020
"tai day va bay gid", ma khdng bj can thiep va chi phdi bdi nhtrng gia thuylt, ly thuylt hay nhirng thien kiln trudc dd. Npi dung khai quat la cac sy kidn quan sat dupc theo phuang cham "nd la nd" va cd vai trd quyit dinh frong vide hinh thanh hieu biet khach quan ve ddi tuang.
Tri thirc khdi qudt hinh Ihirc phdn dnh dac didm, ciu triic cua cac sy vat, hien tugng tai thdi diem nhat djnh; khdi qudt nhung dau hieu chung cua cdc sir vdt cu the, dua tren su "quy udc" ve mgt loai su vat, hien tuang ndo dd. Cd thd quy dac dilm vd than, la, rl, cua cac thyc thd cu thi thanh khai nidm "cay". Gia trj ctia tri thiic khai quat hinh thirc giiip cho vide dinh danh va xIp Ioai, xIp thir bac cac sy vat, bidn tupng nhu phan loai sinh vat, dja ly, toan hpc, kinh tl v.v., trong cac Hnh vyc khoa hpc va trong ddi sdng (Loai, Chi, Hp, Bd, Ldp, Nganh, Gidi trong sinh hpc), Tri Ihirc khdi qudt hinh thirc duac hinh thdnh a hgc sinh theo phuang thtic tiep thu: Quan sdt, phdn tich vd khdi qudt (Davydov, 2000).
Han chi ciia tri thilc khai quat hinh thirc la khdng phan anh nhiing mdi Iidn he giira cac su vat, hien tugng va sy van ddng, phat triin, chuydn hda giira chung (Russell, 2001). Kant vi khai quat hda hinh thuc nhu la ddng tac nhet vao bao tai mpi vat "hinh trdn", nhung khi trut ra, mdi vat Ian mdt nai, khdng Iidn kit vdi nhau (Kant, 2005). Cdn Engel cd nhan xet rat hai budc va sau sac:
"Nau tdi gdp cai ban chai danh giay vao cung mdt loai vdi loai dgng vat cd vu, thi cting khdng thd vl the ma nd sc sinh ra nhttng tuyen sira" (C. Mac va Ang-ghen, 1994, tt. 65).
Khai quat npi dung sy vat, hien tupng Id chien luac khdi qudt qud trinh phdt sinh, phdt trien vd tieu vong cua su vdt, hien tugng. Khai quat ndi dung dugc tiip can theo quan dilm bidn chiing. Tri thirc khai quat ndi dung ddi tugng phan anh ban chat ciia sy vat, cac mdi Iidn he, cac quan he tat ydu, sy van dpng, phat triin va chuydn hda thep nhirng nguydn ly, quy luat, nhtrng chilu hucmg khac nhau ciia cac sy vat, hien tugng trong sy tuong tac vdi nhau va vdi tinh hudng. N I U khai quat hinh thilc phan anh cac dac didm ctia "Cay"
ndi chung, thi khai quat npi dung cho bill sy phat tridn cila mdt loai cay cu thd ttr khi dupc nay mam, sinh trudng ddn khi bj tan lui v.v.
Khac vdi khai quat hinh thiie ctia sy vat, khai quat ngi dung van ddng cua sy vat khdng chi ydu ciu chil thi quan sat su vat, ma phai tidn hanh thyc nghiem, hanh ddng thyc tidn va hanh ddng trai nghiem trdn ddi tupng. Ddng thdi, chii thi phai cd nang lyc triru tupng rit cao dd "vugt qua" cai huu hinh, vat ly cua su vat, dl phat hien cai sieu hinh, dang sau cac bidu hien, tiic la nam bit dugc cai mau thuin, cai ban chit va sy chuyin hda ciia sy vat do.
TAP CHiTAM LV HOC, Sd 3 (252), 3 - 2020 33
Ca tri thire khai quat hinh thiic va ndi dung sy vat diu thudc loai fri thitc thyc chung, tile la tri thire vl sy vat, tri thiic kinh nghiem, hiiu theo nghTa rdng nhit, khac vdi tri thire ly luan thuin tuy hay tri thire ly tinh. Tri thiic kinh nghiem dang dupc dting rat phd bian trong cudc sdng va trong day hpc.
Tuy nhidn, fri thiic kinh nghiem cd hai dac dilm, dong thdi curig la ban chi (vi thi la tri thilc khdng diy dii): Thir nhit la idc dgng ciia cdc yeu td tdm ly cd nhdn dd cd den linh khdch quan cita viec quan sdt, Ihirc nghiem ddi tuang. Mac dti vl ydu ciu va vl ly thuyet, tri thiic khai quat dupe xay dyng trdn cac sy kidn cd tinh thyc chung, theo phuang cham "tai day va bay gid",
"nd la nd", nhung trong thyc id, tri giac va tu duy cua ca nhan boat dpng theo quy luat td chuc cac Gestalt, tire la tai thdi didm nhat djnh, tri giac ludn chju sy tac ddng ciia cac Gestalt da cd trudc dd nhu ludt khep kin, ludt tuang can, tinh ddng dang, quy ludt hinh vd nen v.v. trong tri giac (Maurce Reuchlin; 1995;
Hayes, 2005; Feldman, 1997; Stephen Worchel va Shebilsue; 2007). Ddng thdi, trong cac thao tac tu duy ludn dupc tridn khai theo mpt khudn mau da cd trudc dd cua ca nhiin, theo muc dich djnh trudc (Bohm, 2011). Thii hai la cdc hinh dnh tri gidc, kinh nghiem thuc chirng. Id rda cdn ddi vdi cdc y tirdng bay bong, tu do ciia tu duy vd tudng lugng sdng tao; can trd hinh thanh tri tbiic ly luan, cac y tudng, ty do. Didu nay da duoc Plato (2018) canh bao, ngay tit thdi cd dai, thdng qua chuyen ngu ngdn "hang ddng": Nhiing ngudi tit bj nhot Iau ngay trong hang dgng, ehi sdng vdi cai bdng ctia minh, nhan thuc thudng bj giam ham trong cac cai bdng dd, ludn coi chimg la thd gidi thyc, ngoai ra khdng cd cai gl khac - dd chinh la nguc tii nhan thilc. Einstein cung nhin manh: Ve nguydn tac, that la sai lam ndu xay dyng mdt ly thuylt chi dya trdn nhirng dai lugng quan sat dugc; vi diing ra, thuc tl phai ngugc lai. Chinh ly thuylt quyit djnh vd cai ma ngudi ta cd tbl quan sat dupc (Einstein, 2001). Vi vay, trong day hpc, khdng chi hudng din phat triin tri thvrc ndi dung cho hpc sinh, ma didu rat quan trpng cdn la hudng din cac tri thitc ly Iuan, sang tao.
2.4.2. Chien luac suy ludn logic vd tri thirc ly ludn logic
Chien lupc suy luan trong nhan tbdc Id chii thi hinh thdnh cdc phdn doan, duac suy tir cdc su kien, tri thirc hay tien di cd trudc. Cac y tudng, ly luan, nhan dinh hay phan doan mdi cd tbl ddng nhdt, gidng, khac, ddi lap, mdu ihudn vdi sy kidn, tri thiic hay tidn dl da cd.
Mpt chien lupc suy luan dupc bdt ddu tir cac sy kidn, menh dl logic djnh luat, djnh ly hay mdt trai nghiem, kinh nghiem da cd; duac didn ra frong qua trinh chii tha sir dung cac thao tac tu duy, cac lap luan dl suy ngim va hinh thanh mdt kat luan, nhan djnh hay mdt y tudng mdi. Suy ludn cd thi theo logic vd tudng tuang tu do.
34 TAP CHiTAM Vi HOC, Sd 3 (252), 3 - 2020
Suy luan logic: Logic xuit phat ttr tiing Hy Lap la "Uym" (phien am la legos), nghTa ban diu la ngdn ttr dugc dimg trong ciic tranh luan, sau dd phat triin thanh logic, vdi tu each la hinh thirc ciia tu duy (Nguyin Tiin Dung, 2015). Logic dugc coi la "bp luat", "bp khung" dl phdt triin tu duy logic va la cdng cu nhan thirc the gidi.
Cd ba loai suy luan logic: logic hinh thirc, logic toan va logic ndi dung (logic bidn chting).
Logic hinh thirc la suy luan dya tren cac menh dl; qua trinh suy luan tuan theo cac quy tac dupc chiip nhan nhu la nhirng quy luat bit budc. Kit qua tao ra mdt phan doan mdi.
Suy luan logic hinh thitc phd biin nhit la phdp "7am doan ludn" do Aristotle xay dyng. Tam doan luan la mpt suy luan, xuat phat tir hai menh dl tien dd (dai tidn de va tidu tidn dd), suy ra mdt phan doan (la kdt qua suy luan tit hai tidn dd). Mpt vi du kinh didn va tam doan luan ciia Aristotle la: a) Mgi ngudi deu chet (dai tian da); b) Socrates Id ngudi (tiau tian de); c) Dp dd, Socrate cdng chet (mcnh dd phan doan - ket Iuan). Logic hinh thire tdn trpng tinh dimg dan ciia cac phan doan, tile la phai tuiin theo cac quy luat (Quy luat ddng nhiit trong tu duy; Quy luat phi mau thuan; Quy luat bai chung; Quy luat ly do day dii).
Suy luan logic todn la mpt dang logic hinh thuc, dupc tridn khai trong toan hpc, nghien ciru todn hgc ve logic va irng dung logic hinh thuc trong cdc nganh khde ctia todn hgc. Dac trung ndi bat ciia logic toan la md hinh ly thuydt tidn dd va sire manh suy didn cua he ihdng chung minh chinh thirc.
Logic hinh thirc va Logic toan dd cao khung ly thuyet tien de, tinh quy trinh, tinh nguyen tdc vd tinh hgp ly cua tu duy, sao cho dam bao su hgp ly vd hieu luc, hieu qud ciia cac phan doan, suy luan; cdn tinh chan thyc (chan Iy) ciia cac phan doan khdng dupc dl cao. Vi vay. Logic hinh thiie, dac bidt la Logic toan, nhung tri thiic khdng cd npi dung kinh nghiem la cdng cu manh me trong vide "hinh thirc hoa thi gidi ty nhidn" va xay dyng cac khung tri thuc ly thuyet, thuc day su phdt trien tri thirc ly ludn
Ca logic hinh thtic, logic toiin deu cd dilm chung la dugc bit dau bing mpt menh dl, mpt ky hidu cd tinh tidn dd; mpi suy luan tiip iheo dupc fridn khai theo tien dl va theo cac quy luat cua nd; kit qua dan din cac phan doan cd tinh gia dinh. Cac suy luan ddi hdi phiii cd nang lyc triru tupng, nang lyc phan tu va nang lyc suy luan rit cao. Vi vay, cac loai logic nay la cdng cy rat manh, sic ben frong vide ren luyen tu duy logic va xay dyng khung ly thuydt, phat tridn he thdng tri thilc ly luan.
TAP CHi TAM Vi HOC, Sd 3 (252), 3 - 2020 35
Lagic ngi dung hay logic bien chirng, la mdt he thdng ly luan sinh ddng, cdn dupc gpi la phuang phap bien chirng do Hegel dd xuit (Hegelian Dialectic), cd kha nang kham pha sy phat friln cila sy vat, hien tupng theo tidn frinh phat tridn CLia nd.
Logic bidn chirng ciia Hegel khdi sy vdi mpt dinh de xudt phdt (thesis);
tiip ddn la mpt luan dl ddi nghich dupc gpi la phdn di (antithesis). Mau thuan cua bai luan dl ddi lap dupe kit thuc bing sy hinh thanh ndn mdt ludn de mdi dugc ggi la hap di (synthesis), dung hda clupc ca hai luan dd ban dau: Djnh de - Phan dl - Hop dd (Hegel, 2008). Ching ban: Ga de ra trung ga - Trirng ga nd thanh ga — Ga va trirng ga sinh thanh ra nhau.
Tri thiic suy luan bidn chimg da tao ndn ly thuydt ve tinh gan kdt va sy phat triin, chuyin hda cua mpi sy vat, hien tupng trong thd gidi tu nhidn, xa hdi va con ngudi, vdi muc tidu tao ra khung tri thvrc tdng hpp giiia ly luan thuan tiiy vdi tri thiic kinh nghiem.
2.4.3. Tri tudng tuang hay suy ludn phi logic vd tri thirc sdng tao Enstein cho ring, ndn tiing trong he thdng vat ly ly thuyet cua Newton la dac tinh tudng tugng (Enstein, 2001). Chinh dng ciing tdng kdt: "Neu suy nghi lai vd tdi va vd each tu duy ctia minh, tdi gin nhu di din mdt kdt luan rang kha nang tudng tucmg ddi vdi tdi quan trpng ban nang khidu cua tdi trong vide tiap thu kidn thiic". Dieu nay dupc the hien trong mpt tuydn ngdn ndi tidng ciia dng: "Tudng tucmg quan trpng hon hidu bidt" {Imagination is mare important than knowledge) (dan theo Nguydn Xuan Sanh, 2009).
Theo Enstein (2001), nhtrng khai nidm Iy luan va cac dinh dl dupc rut ra til kinh nghiem mdt each ridng re ddu that bai, ndu khdng dya vao dac tinh cia ty do tri tud, nau khdng dupc dya vao cac y tudng, dugc niiy sinh bdi true gidc tri tue, tit tri tudng tugng. Dac tinh cua tudng tuong la sy ty do tri tue - didu quan trgng ddi vol sang tao tri thiic gidng khdng khi ddi vdi sy sdng. Con ngudi kham pha sy tdn tai cua tbl gidi bing cac khai quat hay suy luan logic (hinh thirc va bien chirng), nhung sang tao ra tbl gidi trong nhan thire bing tudng tugtig. Tudng lugng khdtig chi din ca nhan din bilu bilt tbl gidi, ma cdn tryc tidp tao ra nidm frn. Chang ban, niim tin vao dac quyin ciia nam gidi so vdi nu gidi; tin vao cudc sdng hanh phuc hay dau khd v.v. diu dupc gdp phan bdi sy tudng tucmg.
Quan sat trd em trong cac trd choi ddng vai cho thiy, sdc manh va vai trd ciia tri tudng tupng sy ddi vdi phiit triin nhan thiic va tam ly ciia tre, Tuy nhian, trong thyc tl, khi budc; vao hgc tap trong nha trudng, tbl gidi ty do tudng tugng sang tao ctia tre din bj thu hep bdi khdng gian vd thdi gian cita tu
36 TAP CHiTAM Ly HOC, Sd 3 (252), 3 - 2020
duy logic ngay cang phii kin ndi dung va phuang phiip hgc tap. Trpng khi dd, theo Chinua Achcbe, tudng tupng la cdng cu dl giai phdng tri tue. Ddi sdng ciia tri tudng tupng la ylu td sdng cdn eua loan bd ban chil ciia ca nhan, nlu hi
"bd ddi" hoac bi "diu ddc", ddi sdng cua chung ta se bi suy kidt hay bi "nhilm dpc" (Chinua Achebe, 2011),
2.4.4. Sir chuyen hda tir ly ludn sang kinh nghiem vd ngugc lai Bang suy luan ly tinh cd thd tao ra bilu bilt ly luan thuin tuy, ddng thdi bing tri giac cd thd tap ra hidu bidt kinh nghiem vl sy vat. Tuy nhidn, nlu ridng re, ban than ly luan cung nhu kinh nghiem thuin tuy khdng thd tao thanh tri thiic theo dung nghTa. Theo Kant, khdng cd ngi dung, tu tudng trdng rdng:
khdng cd cdi khdi niem, nhdn thirc mil qudng... Ly tri dan ihudn khdng the nhdn thirc; tri gidc dan thuan chdng the suy tudng. Tri ihirc xudt phdt tir su phdi hgp hoat ddng ciia hai dang ndng lire ndy. Dd binh thanh tri thiie, kinh nghiem va suy tudng ddu can thidt. Cac kinh nghiem cung cap ndi dung, suy tudng cung cap khai nidm. Sy phdi hpp ay tao ra iri thire hoan chinh - gidng nhu sy phdi hgp giira may mdc va nguydn lieu lao ra thanh pham. Trong dd kinh nghiem la nguyen lieu, suy luan ly tinh va tudng tupng nhu may mdc (Kant, 2005). Phuang thiic bidu qua dd "bien" ly luan thanh kinh nghiem va kinh nghiem thanh Iy luan trong mdt cau true tdng the d bpc sinh ciin id chirc cho cdc em hoat ddng tren ddi tuang, thyc nghiem va trai nghiem. Bdi Ic, each hidu tdt nhiit vc mpt ddi tupng niio dd la lam ra nd. Sy quan sat dya vao kinh nghiem ty ban than nd khdng bao gid cd thd chung minh dugc day du tinh tat yau. "Post hoc" (sau cai dd) chii khdng phai "proptes hoc" (do cai dd). Nhung bing chung ctia tinh tit ylu la d trong hoat ddng cila con ngudi, trong kinh nghiem, trong lao dpng: nlu tdi cd tbl tao ra dupc "post hoc" thi nd se trd thanh ddng nhit vdi "propter hoc" (Ang-ghen, 1994). Khi hpc sinh nhitt hai hang cay tren con dudng, se thiy mau thuin (kinh nghiem) vdi djnh ly ve hai dudng thing song song (ly luan), nhung khi cac em ve hai doan thdng sang sgng len gidy hoac hanh ddng xIp hinh theo cac each khac nhau, se phat bicn va giai thich dupe mau thuin gitta hinh anh tri giac vdi djnh ly.
3. Kit luan
Tri thiic thyc sy la vin dl rii ldn trong day hpc phd thdng bidn nay, khdng phai d chd cd nhilu each hiiu khac nhau, ma la tudng nhu da dugc thdng nhit til lau, ndn ft dupc dl cap trong giiio due va day hgc. Tuy nhidn, bin ngoai ly luan day hpc, fri thvrc va sy hinh thanh tri thOrc dupc ban luan kha nhilu, nhit la frong tam ly hgc va trong nhan thirc luan. Day chinh la lai nguydn cin dugc khai thac dl bb khuylt cho ndi dung giao due phd thdng.
Trong nhung ITnh vyc khoa hgc ndu Iran, fri thitc dugc hiiu khdng dan gidn Id
TAP CHiTAM Vi HOC, Sd 3 (252), 3 - 2020 37
hieu biet, ma la niem tin cua con ngudi trong qud Irlnh khdm phd chdn ly, bdng cdc chien lirac khac nhau. Tri Ihuc cung khong la hieu biet co tinh bam sinh, ma la ket qua cua hpc tap va trai nghiem; duge ngam an trong dao due, tham my, tinh each va pham chat nhan each ca nhan; eo sue manh san sinh va la mpt he thong ma luon van dpng va phat trien theo su phat trien cua ea nhan va xa hpi. Su phai trien cua nhan thue luan hien dai da cho thay, tri thue la su thong nhat huu ca giua ly luan tu iy tinh, suy tuang vai kinh nghiem thuc chung tu quan sat va thuc nghiem. Tuy nhien, day khong phai la sir ket hpfp sy
"long ghep'" cai nay vdi cai kia, ma la su sinh thanh va chuyen hoa eua ca hai trong hoat dpng eua con ngudi. Do vay, to chuc eho hpc sinh hoat dpng (thuc ti£n va tri tue tu do) la phuang thuc hieu qua trong vice hinh thanh va phat trien tri thue, hinh thanh phat trien ea tinh, pham each ca nhan.
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40 TAP CHI TAM LV HOC, Sd 3 (252), 3 - 2020
